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This report describes three lines of research relevant to this issue, namely, the effects of: (1) focused music listening on subsequent task performance (the Mozart effect); (2) music instruction; and (3) background music listening. Research suggests that while Mozart effect studies have attracted considerable media attention, the effect cannot be reliably demonstrated in children. In contrast, music instruction confers consistent benefits for spatiotemporal reasoning skills; however, improvements in associated academic domains, such as arithmetic, have not been reliably shown. Finally, background music may calm and focus children with special education needs, thereby enhancing learning. Additional research is required to determine whether this effect is evident in normal populations. Overall, evidence for the non‐musical benefits of music listening and instruction is limited. 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Increase in spatial reasoning performance immediately after exposure to a Mozart piano sonata; List of key procedural components presented by authors of the original studies to produce the effect; Attempts to produce a Mozart effect by following the instructions; Evidence to support basing intellectual intervention programs on the existence of the Mozart effect.", "publicationTitle": "Psychological Science (Wiley-Blackwell)", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "July 1999", "volume": "10", "issue": "4", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "366", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "Psychological Science (Wiley-Blackwell)", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "09567976", "archive": "aph", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "The mystery of Mozart effect", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "EBSCOhost", "callNumber": "2178351", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "MUSIC -- Psychological aspects", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "SPATIAL behavior", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "NWMGNFAV" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-12-01T20:51:33Z", "dateModified": "2012-12-01T20:51:33Z" } }, { "key": "9EHHS769", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 88639, "name": "Ercanbrack Project", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/88639/items/9EHHS769", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project/items/9EHHS769", "type": "text/html" }, "up": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/88639/items/CJZI7NGT", "type": "application/json" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 1120092, "username": "dustinerc", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/dustinerc", "type": "text/html" } } } }, "data": { "key": "9EHHS769", "version": 1, "parentItem": "CJZI7NGT", "itemType": "attachment", "linkMode": "linked_url", "title": "EBSCO Record", "accessDate": "2012-12-01T20:51:33Z", "url": "http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=2178351&site=ehost-live&scope=cite", "note": "", "contentType": "text/html", "charset": "", "tags": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-12-01T20:51:33Z", "dateModified": "2012-12-01T20:51:33Z" } }, { "key": "D6JN884H", "version": 2, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 88639, "name": "Ercanbrack Project", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/88639/items/D6JN884H", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project/items/D6JN884H", "type": "text/html" }, "up": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/88639/items/M43SS4BX", "type": "application/json" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 1120092, "username": "dustinerc", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/dustinerc", "type": "text/html" } } } }, "data": { "key": "D6JN884H", "version": 2, "parentItem": "M43SS4BX", "itemType": "attachment", "linkMode": "imported_url", "title": "Snapshot", "accessDate": "2012-10-29T23:31:30Z", "url": "http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-8527.t01-1-00063/abstract", "note": "", "contentType": "text/html", "charset": "utf-8", "filename": "abstract.html", "md5": "709dcc874c171c49d67172d64465713a", "mtime": 1351553490790, "tags": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-12-01T20:48:33Z", "dateModified": "2012-12-01T20:48:33Z" } }, { "key": "M43SS4BX", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 88639, "name": "Ercanbrack Project", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/88639/items/M43SS4BX", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project/items/M43SS4BX", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 1120092, "username": "dustinerc", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/dustinerc", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Hallam and Price", "parsedDate": "1998", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "M43SS4BX", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Research Section: Can the use of background music improve the behaviour and academic performance of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties?", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Susan", "lastName": "Hallam" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "John", "lastName": "Price" } ], "abstractNote": "Historically, there have been many claims regarding the beneficial effects of music on behaviour and development, but there has been little empirical work to verify them. Our present research studied the effects of providing background music in the classroom on the behaviour and performance in mathematical tasks of ten children attending a school for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties, who exhibited a high frequency of disruptive behaviour. There was a significant improvement in behaviour and mathematics performance for all the children. The effects were particularly marked for those whose problems were related to constant stimulus-seeking and over-activity. Improvements were also observed in improved co-operation and a reduction in aggression during the lessons immediately following the study.", "publicationTitle": "British Journal of Special Education", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "1998", "volume": "25", "issue": "2", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "88–91", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "10.1111/1467-8527.t01-1-00063", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-8527.t01-1-00063/abstract", "accessDate": "2012-10-29T23:31:30Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "1467-8578", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "Research Section", "language": "en", "libraryCatalog": "Wiley Online Library", "callNumber": "", "rights": "NASEN 1998", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [ "NWMGNFAV" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-12-01T20:48:33Z", "dateModified": "2012-12-01T20:48:33Z" } }, { "key": "T3HCI57J", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 88639, "name": "Ercanbrack Project", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/88639/items/T3HCI57J", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project/items/T3HCI57J", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 1120092, "username": "dustinerc", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/dustinerc", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Ho et al.", "parsedDate": "2003", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "T3HCI57J", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Music training improves verbal but not visual memory: Cross-sectional and longitudinal explorations in children", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Yim-Chi", "lastName": "Ho" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Mei-Chun", "lastName": "Cheung" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Agnes S.", "lastName": "Chan" } ], "abstractNote": "The hypothesis that music training can improve verbal memory was tested in children. The results showed that children with music training demonstrated better verbal but not visual memory than did their counterparts without such training. When these children were followed up after a year, those who had begun or continued music training demonstrated significant verbal memory improvement. Students who discontinued the training did not show any improvement. Contrary to the differences in verbal memory between the groups, their changes in visual memory were not significantly different. Consistent with previous findings for adults (A. S. Chan, Y. Ho, & M. Cheung, 1998), the results suggest that music training systematically affects memory processing in accordance with possible neuroanatomical modifications in the left temporal lobe.", "publicationTitle": "Neuropsychology", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "2003", "volume": "17", "issue": "3", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "439-450", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "10.1037/0894-4105.17.3.439", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "1931-1559(Electronic);0894-4105(Print)", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "Music training improves verbal but not visual memory", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "APA PsycNET", "callNumber": "", "rights": "(c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "children", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "music training", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "neuroanatomical modifications of left temporal lobe", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "verbal memory", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "visual memory", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-09-23T21:52:07Z", "dateModified": "2012-11-07T03:25:07Z" } }, { "key": "N4GPM2VH", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 88639, "name": "Ercanbrack Project", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/88639/items/N4GPM2VH", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project/items/N4GPM2VH", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 1120092, "username": "dustinerc", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/dustinerc", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Schlaug et al.", "parsedDate": "2005", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "N4GPM2VH", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Effects of Music Training on the Child's Brain and Cognitive Development", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Gottfried", "lastName": "Schlaug" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Andrea", "lastName": "Norton" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Katie", "lastName": "Overy" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Ellen", "lastName": "Winner" } ], "abstractNote": "Abstract: Research has revealed structural and functional differences in the brains of adult instrumental musicians compared to those of matched nonmusician controls, with intensity/duration of instrumental training and practice being important predictors of these differences. Nevertheless, the differential contributions of nature and nurture to these differences are not yet clear. The musician-nonmusician comparison is an ideal model for examining whether and, if so, where such functional and structural brain plasticity occurs, because musicians acquire and continuously practice a variety of complex motor, auditory, and multimodal skills (e.g., translating visually perceived musical symbols into motor commands while simultaneously monitoring instrumental output and receiving multisensory feedback). Research has also demonstrated that music training in children results in long-term enhancement of visual-spatial, verbal, and mathematical performance. However, the underlying neural bases of such enhancements and whether the intensity and duration of instrumental training or other factors, such as extracurricular activities, attention, motivation, or instructional methods can contribute to or predict these enhancements are yet unknown. Here we report the initial results from our studies examining the brain and cognitive effects of instrumental music training on young children in a longitudinal study and a cross-sectional comparison in older children. Further, we present a comparison of the results in these children's studies with observations from our cross-sectional studies with adults.", "publicationTitle": "Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "2005", "volume": "1060", "issue": "1", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "219–230", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "10.1196/annals.1360.015", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1360.015/abstract", "accessDate": "2012-09-23T21:40:31Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "1749-6632", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "en", "libraryCatalog": "Wiley Online Library", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "brain plasticity", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "children", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "development morphometry", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "fMRI", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "instrumental music training", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "longitudinal study", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "music", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "musicians", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "nonmusicians", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "skill learning", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "NWMGNFAV" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-09-23T21:52:07Z", "dateModified": "2012-11-07T03:25:07Z" } }, { "key": "QET4GTQE", "version": 2, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 88639, "name": "Ercanbrack Project", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/88639/items/QET4GTQE", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project/items/QET4GTQE", "type": "text/html" }, "up": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/88639/items/G7TG822T", "type": "application/json" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 1120092, "username": "dustinerc", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/dustinerc", "type": "text/html" } } } }, "data": { "key": "QET4GTQE", "version": 2, "parentItem": "G7TG822T", "itemType": "attachment", "linkMode": "imported_url", "title": "Snapshot", "accessDate": "2012-11-07T02:03:14Z", "url": "http://jrm.sagepub.com/content/47/3/198.short", "note": "", "contentType": "text/html", "charset": "utf-8", "filename": "198.html", "md5": "1b532241b80ab1e80cebbc7b2811c54b", "mtime": 1352253795088, "tags": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-11-07T03:24:41Z", "dateModified": "2012-11-07T03:24:41Z" } }, { "key": "G7TG822T", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 88639, "name": "Ercanbrack Project", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/88639/items/G7TG822T", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/ercanbrack_project/items/G7TG822T", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 1120092, "username": "dustinerc", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/dustinerc", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Costa-Giomi", "parsedDate": "1999-10-01", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "G7TG822T", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "The Effects of Three Years of Piano Instruction on Children's Cognitive Development", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Eugenia", "lastName": "Costa-Giomi" } ], "abstractNote": "The relationship between music and cognitive abilities was studied by observing the cognitive development of children provided (n = 63) and not provided (n = 54) with individual piano lessons from fourth to sixth grade. There were no differences in cognitive abilities, musical abilities, motor proficiency, self-esteem, academic achievement, or interest in studying piano between the two groups of children at the beginning of the study. It was found that the treatment affected children's general and spatial cognitive development. The magnitude of such effects (omega squared) was small. Additional analyses showed that although the experimental group obtained higher spatial abilities scores in the Developing Cognitive Abilities Test after 1 and 2 years of instruction than did the control group, the groups did not differ in general or specific cognitive abilities after 3 years of instruction. The treatment did not affect the development of quantitative and verbal cognitive abilities.", "publicationTitle": "Journal of Research in Music Education", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "10/01/1999", "volume": "47", "issue": "3", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "198-212", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "Journal of Research in Music Education", "DOI": "10.2307/3345779", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://jrm.sagepub.com/content/47/3/198", "accessDate": "2012-11-07T02:03:14Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "0022-4294, 1945-0095", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "en", "libraryCatalog": "jrm.sagepub.com", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [ "NWMGNFAV" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-11-07T03:24:41Z", "dateModified": "2012-11-07T03:24:41Z" } } ]