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Chapter 2: Understanding Design

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N: Robin has a signed copy of the book from Kees -- maybe she knows Dorst.

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P 25: The notion of \"design\" is a polymorphous concept; it doesn't take to clean definitions.

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Q 26: There is no one single way of looking at design that captures the 'essence' without missing some other salient aspects... designers are used to performing this little dance around a problem, taking stabs at it from different sides. This may sound chaotic but if done well it allows one to build up an integrated picture in the end.

\n

P 28: Design as creativity and analysis. Bryan Lawson's 1979 experiment watched how science vs design (architecture) students solved a problem. The scientists tried to find the underlying structure, then solved it once they did - in other words, they analyzed the problem. The designers assumed the situation would be chaotic with no underlying structure, and started just trying out solutions that would work - they analyzed their solutions.

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P 30-31: Design as problem-solving. Usually represented as a flowchart: go through this and you'll get A Solution!

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Q 33: Wim Groeneboom: \"..through this kind of teaching [with a fixed design method to follow] we take away the insecurity of the students. It is a way of quickly and efficiently explaining design but that is deadly. Students have to learn to deal with uncertainty, and we take that away by this kind of teaching... In the end, I would say that dealing with uncertainties is the core of our design profession.\"

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P 32-34: Design as learning -- designers gradually gather information about a problem as they tackle it. They are learning.

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P 34-38 Design as evolution - if we dig into the \"eureka\" moment, it's a myth. People think they had them, in retrospect, but if you go back to actual logs of the event it's usually more of a dawning realization.

\n

P 40-42: Design as the creation of solutions to problems. The difference between design and art is that design is grounded by functionality and the needs of stakeholders. But the word \"problem\" is problematic and constraining, suggesting that all design \"problems\" have solutions (if we only go through the flowchart) which is an oversimplification.

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P 42-44 Design as integration.

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P 44-48: Design as a fundamental human activity - some people claim everyone does design, and now teachers, managers, etc. \"design\" things -- and they do -- but not everyone becomes accomplished and advanced at it.

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N ^: Boundary-making! Is there some aspect of trying to preserve prestige here?

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P 48-60: A model of design activities includes

\n
    \n
  1. formulating (identifying and framing)
    2. \n
  2. representing (in multiple media, and having conversations with those artifacts)
    3. \n
  3. moving/changing the solution (which may be novel to the design team, the field, or the world)
    4. \n
  4. evaluating (objectively or subjectively, via the quality frameworks described below, and also knowing when to suspend judgement)
    5. \n
  5. managing (continuous improvement, self-awareness and reflection, having simultaneous parallel thoughtstreams)
    6. \n
\n

P 56: 3 ways of defining the \"quality\" of a design:

\n
    \n
  1. utilitarian - if people buy it, it's good.
    2. \n
  2. intrinsic - goodness is an ingrained characteristic in what we make regardless of whether people buy it.
    3. \n
  3. by principle - if designs meet a certain set of virtues (honesty, simplicity, etc) they are good.
    4. \n
\n

P 61: Model of levels of design activity:

\n
    \n
  1. Project
    2. \n
  2. Process
    3. \n
  3. Practice
    4. \n
  4. Profession
    5. \n
\n

N ^: This is reminiscent of the notion of peripherality in communities of practice -- as you get more involved in something, you move deeper into that community's circle, and that's the same as moving through the hierarchy here. (Then again, \"practice\" is one of the levels here, so what do I make of that?)

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P 68-78 : A model of 3 types of design thinking, in order of richness, and a hilarious story of a \"design rubbish bins for a train\" exercise to illustrate them:

\n
    \n
  1. Convention-based - \"here's the rule of thumb, let's just apply it. Done!\" (Young students blindly took the rule of \"we must design for the user!\" and applied it to the single user group of passengers, ending up with bins that are hard for the cleaning crew to clean.)
    2. \n
  2. Situation-based - \"let's make something appropriate for this particular setting.\" (Some studentss and experienced designers realized the passengesr and cleaners were two groups with conflicting design needs, and made their designs a compromise between the two.)
    3. \n
  3. Strategy-based - \"we're not just designing the solution, we are also desgining the process for creating the situation that will house the solution.\" (Some experienced designers caught the paradox of serving passengers and cleaners both, and started redesigning the entire train car, whereas the convention and situaion based designers were still focused on an individual seat.)
    4. \n
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P 123: This paper looks at architectural \"study sketches,\" the roughest (often incomprehensibly rough), earliest, and most preliminary drawings that architects make when they begin a project.

\n

N: As I read this paper, I find myself paying more and more attention to the sketches and thinking (once again) of cognitive apprenticeship's tagline, \"making thinking visible.\" These sketches are literally making thinking visible -- that is, pictorial. However, the blobby squiggles -- while visible -- are certainly not making thinking comprehensible; it's only when we look at the commentary by the architects that some vague, verbally-expressible sense can be made.

\n

N ^: Why is it that \"understandable\" means \"able to explain in words\" more often than not? Why do we require that level of precision? Might words in this case be doing a version of what computer programs are cricitized for in (Fish & Scrivener, 1990) -- overconstraining the ideas by forcing details to be specified that don't need to be specified quite yet?

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Q 117: [Sketching is] the production of untidy images to assist in the development of visual ideas

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P 117: Computer systems force people to describe half-formed ideas with too much precision, limiting their ability to discover and explore creative solutions in their sketching activity.

\n

P 118-120: Sketches are fragmentary and incomplete, forcing the mind of the viewer or artist to fill in the blanks -- but because the blanks are being filled in mentally, they're more flexible up there in \"brain space\" than they would be on paper.

\n

P 122: Brains have a certain amount of processing capacity for different modalities -- think of your brain as having an \"auditory\" microprocessor, a \"visual\" one, a \"verbal\" one, a \"tactile\" one, and so forth. If you try to do two unrelated visual tasks simultaneously, it's harder than doing a visual and an auditory task simultaneously (sometimes, viewing your brain as a robot and doing load-balancing can be helpful!) But apparently doing two related tasks on the same \"processor\" helps both -- makes sense, since they can sort of work with each other. It turns out that percepts (mental images of things perceived by the senses) are visual -- so visual things and imagined visual things use the same \"processor,\" and sketching helps you imagine things in your mind's eye.

\n

N ^: ...because we would never have figured that out on our own? Isn't this obvious?

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Chapter 3

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N 81: The Dorst chapter opens with a quote from one of my favorite models of skill acquisition: Dreyfus & Dreyfus. The development of expertise can sometimes be at odds with the development of reflection-in-action, sort of like strength and flexibility. Lest you become musclebound or noodle-limbed, you need to develop the two in loose tandem -- not exactly in lockstep, because they'll leapfrog each other, but just making sure you don't end up saddled with too much unconscious process or too little actual skill.

N 84: If expertise is about fluency with context, and design requires fluency in context, does all good design require expertise? Is it possible for novice designers to come up with \"good designs\" (what does \"good\" mean?) and if so, are any \"good\" novice designs an inadvertent accident?

N 86: Galway's advice about learning the flute by first blowing across just the head joint reminds me of the practice of scaffolding in cognitive apprenticeship -- little by little, you give novices more and more complicated tasks to do, starting them off with simple things and getting them more involved in the full process as they gain skill (but letting them see the full complex process the entire time).

N 94: Aha -- I see how to get back to my note on p. 84. Design isn't just a straight-up cognitive apprenticeship; it's a ridiculously multi-disciplinary cognitive apprenticeship (or a combination of many cognitive apprenticeships in many disciplines) and people will enter at different levels for every domain and develop at different rates in each of them. (I'm not sure if this is a particularly unique claim; there are certainly many facets to single-domain things like flute-playing; people enter at different levels for certain skills like tone production, sightreading, etc. and progress at different rates for each of them as well.)

N: Novices can sometimes have visionary thoughts, but it's hard to be a true visionary and create change without mastering a domain first -- the impact is hit-or-miss otherwise because you don't know the context you're transforming. I think this is why I feel so uncomfortable with radically transparent research right now; maybe it'll change the research world someday, but I need to learn the research world before I can change it, otherwise I'm just spouting hubris. It's a tough balance to strike, knowing a context but not being mentally bound by it, being able to imagine things beyond it.

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This week's readings are about reflection in design -- which works just fine with me, since I love most anything with the prefix \"meta-\". Most of them are by Donald Schoen, although I know the work of his wife Nancy far better. I wouldn't mind deep-diving into (either) Schoen's work more -- but this week it's Donald's turn, since we're reading selections from The Reflective Practitioner, which start out explaining the limits of Technical Rationality (a hardline separation of \"theory\" from \"practice\") and introducing this idea of reflection-in-action, which basically means thinking about something while you do it.

\n

It's hard for me, sitting here in 2012 as a graduate of an excellent undergraduate engineering design education, to appreciate how significant and new this thought must have been nearly 30 years ago. I don't think we recognized and honored tacit knowledge much -- at least not in formal academic settings. If you couldn't write it down, how could you know it? I wonder how the fine and performing arts fared in universities -- I remember Shannon McMullen's explanation of how people today are still  trying to figure out what it means to get a PhD in Art that doesn't involve writing a massive Art History paper.

\n
\n

Q 49: When we go about the spontaneous, intuitive performance of the actions of everyday life, we show ourselves to be knowledgeable in a special way. Often we cannot say what it is that we know. When we try to describe it we find ourselves at a loss, or we produce descriptions that are obviously inappropriate. Our knowing is ordinarily tacit, implicit in our patterns of action and in our feel for the stuff with which we are dealing. It seems right to know that our knowing is in our action.

\n
\n

Okay, so the tacit-knowledge stuff comes from Polyani (whoI haven't read in years and need to take a closer look at). But still! Schoen starts describing...

\n
\n

Q 54-55: ...we can think about doing something while doing it... When good jazz musicians improvise together, they also manifest a \"feel for\" their material and they make on-the-spot adjustments to the sounds they hear...

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P 55: Schoen goes on to elaborate on how the musicians are aided by a common schema (harmony, metre, etc) and their personal repertoire of musical figures -- they've got the pieces and some ground rules for how to put them together, so they can improvise in the putting-together.

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P 76: The title of the 3rd chapter is \"Design as a Reflective Conversation with the Situation,\" which nicely describes the jazz analogy -- except instead of other musicians, sometimes you're playing with artifacts, a space, ideas, and other people. Architects are in conversation with their landscape, athletes with their sneakers, their teammates, the court, the ball.

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He also starts explaining an interesting thread that I'll spin off on here: right now, design (and a lot of new and emerging work, for that matter) is pretty tacit. Often we know things about design somehow, we can look at things and tell whether they're right  -- but we don't know why they're right, or what right means, or how we know. Now, that's not to say we should stop there -- we can sometimes figure out our processes with more clarity. But we do need to start that process by honoring the tacit, by saying \"yes, there's something there -- even if we can't write it down, and maybe never will be able to.\" At least I think so.

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When describing the structure of reflection-in-action, Schoen uses a tactic that I pull off frequently: take two case studies from wildly different worlds, so diverse that people think what the heck could these have in common? and then show what they have in common. Voila, structure! In particular...

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Q 129: [When engaged in reflection-in-action], the practitioner approaches the practice problem as a unique case. He does not act as though he had no relevant prior experiences; on the contrary. But he attends to the peculiarities of the situation at hand... [He does not behave] as though he were looking for cues to a standard solution. Rather, [he] seeks to discover the particular features of his problematic situation, and from their gradual discovery, designs an intervention... tries to make sense of the problematic situation he is encountering at secondhand. The situation is complex and uncertain, and there is a problem in finding the problem.

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There's one particular practice that's helped me a lot with reflection-in-action. Schoen calls it

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P 133: the idea of \"keeping inquiry moving\" (as a way to aid reflection-in-action)

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...and I just did it a ton during my Readiness Assessment. Write out loud, think out loud -- keep moving, don't get stuck, keep your fingers streaming words across the page, if you get lost, write about being lost, write about being tired or stuck or frustrated, write through that and you're likely to come out the other side.

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Q 5: If language metonymically refers to design by intertwining with designers in an ontological circuit of recognition that harnesses and represents that which can be conversed and said, does language itself participate in the enactment of design?

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N ^: Um. What? I think this translates to: \"Does language help design come into being? Here's a nifty thought: maybe the things we write and say are actually stand-in references to design. How would that work? Well, language is being used to recognize designers as being designers -- and designers are the ones that speak and recognize that language as being valid, as being about design, or whatever. We've got a sort of reciprocal circle going on here, don't we? When these designers use words to represent and recognize their design activities, they're using the power of being able to say things, and they're also painting this space in which many other sorts of things could be said (even if they don't have time to do it right there and then).\"

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Q 6: That language does design rather than merely represents design is fundamentally the concept of performativity. The theory of the performativity of the language of design claims that language performatively enacts design through: (1) aggregation - to blend ideas and concepts; (2) accumulation -- to scaffold ideas and concepts; and (3) appraisal -- to evaluate and assess ideas and concepts. Through these performative aspects, the language of design enacts design and actualizes the designed work.

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N ^: Clearly I need to look into this \"performativity\" thing more, because my own work is about the importance of exposing discourse -- which implies discourse is important to expose. And why? Because discourse is practice, and not just for actors and writers and folks of that ilk. Discourse within practice is practice -- Lave and Wenger's book, Situated Learning, points out that practitioners tell each others stories about their experience as practitioners, and this plays an important role in learning in communities of practice. Talking \"about\" your practice is an integral part of talking \"within\" it.

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Q 64: Matrix Pattern I. Tacit VERSUS Reflective Design Thinking. THE STRATEGY OF REFLECTING ON PROCESS: BEGINNING DESIGNERS do tacit designing when they think and act with little self-reflection and do little monitoring of their own or others’ actions. INFORMED DESIGNERS practice reflective thinking by keeping tabs on their own and others’ design work in a metacognitive way, and reviewing their processes and products once they have completed their work.

P 64-65: Informed designers realize they have a mental model of their design situation, and that this model will (and should!) change over time. They reflect on their past experiences and current ideas as a way of thinking about -- and thus shaping -- their mental models.

Q 66: Keeping portfolios can help learners describe details of their own process (Sobek & Jain, 2007), construct and articulate their own philosophy of design (Hirsch & McKenna, 2008), and make evidence-based claims about how
they are prepared for future practice (Turns et al., 2010).

Q 67: Computer technologies provide a number of scaffolds that can enhance an individual’s or group’s reflective thinking about designing. These include... synchronous and asynchronous on-line systems that support learning communities in engaging in reflective social discourse (Lin, Hmelo, Kinzer & Secules, 1999);

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Potential theory readings: (selection: Flavell)

Elmer, R. (2002). Meta-cognition and design and technology education. The Journal of Design and Technology Education 7(1), 19-25.

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. American Psychologist 34(10), 906-911.

Perkins, D. N. (1995). Outsmarting IQ: The emerging science of learnable intelligence. New York: Free Press.

Potential teaching readings: (selection: Turns)

Hirsch, P. L., & McKenna, A. F. (2008). Using reflection to promote teamwork understanding in engineering design education. International Journal of Engineering Education 24(2), 377-385.
 
Turns, J., Sattler, B., & Kilgore, D. (2010). Disciplinary knowledge, identity, and navigation: The contributions of portfolio construction. Proceedings of the International Society of the Learning Sciences (pp. 818-825). Chicago, June 30.

Lin, X. D., Hmelo, C. E., Kinzer, C. K., & Secules, T. J. (1999). Designing technology to support reflection. Educational Technology Research & Development 47(3), 43-62.

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Read because they're cool

Turns, J., Adams, R. S., Linse, A., & Atman, C. J. (2003). Bridging from research to teaching in undergraduate engineering design education. International Journal of Engineering Education 20(3), 379-390.

Turns, J., Adams, R. S., Cardella, M., Atman, C. J., Martin, J., & Newman, J. (2006). Tackling the research-to-practice challenge in engineering design education: Making the invisible visible. International Journal of Engineering Education 22(3), 598-606.

Dreyfus, H., & Dreyfus, S. (2005). Expertise in real world contexts. Organization Studies 26(5), 779-792.

Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1993). Surpassing ourselves: An inquiry into the nature and implications of expertise. LaSalle, IL: Open Court.

Sternberg, R. (1998). Metacognition, abilities, and developing expertise: What makes an expert student? Instructional Science 26(1-2), 127-140.

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A historical tour through the development of psychological paradigms in the history of teaching and learning.

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P 5-8: 1960s-1970s - behaviorist (stimulus/response). Everything must be observable and repeatable, and we can get complex behavior from this. Trying to get psychology accepted as a proper science. Left the legacy of self-paced instruction (clear, externally observable goal broken into parts; students get instant feedback and must master before moving on) and computer-based learning still draws on it today. Shortcoming: how do we teach? Also, we do think.

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P 8-11:1970s-1980s - cognitive psychology (representing internal structure of memory). Input gets manipulated and stored in the memory. Left the legacy of how to structure/present info so it's easy to remember - highlight/bold key points to catch attention, use tables/analogies/etc to organize material, actively check a student's understanding to see where their mental \"map\" was, associate with existing known memories; hypertext still draws on it today. This also gave us things like the notion of working memory (take breaks so people can digest information, don't take up cognitive capacity with anxiety so students can focus on material, etc).

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P 11-16: Later on, the concept of metacognition came into cognitive psychology, treating the learner less passively. Cognitive apprenticeships (instructors should model thinking) came from here, as did metacognition-support activities like journals and problem-solving strategy discussion. The idea of teaching problem-solving strategies became a thing. The field became increasingly learner-centered (constructivism, self-regulation, self-determination, strategic learning)

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Q: These theories lie on a continuum from the simple influence of prior knowledge on the understanding of new information to the idea of knowl-
edge existing only in and drawing on the context of the learning situation, an idea called distributed cognition (Bereiter, 1990). Here the basis for understanding by learners involves not just their own prior knowledge and present experience but that of other individuals who are interacting with them in the situation, as well as the situation itself. These are the concepts of social constructivism (Bruner, 1990) and situated cognition (Brown, Collins, and Duguid, 1989), respectively. Its legacy has been learner-centeredness, learning in groups, \"authentic problem solving\" (including legitimate peripheral participation).

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N^: README

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N: Situated cognition is sometimes called \"situated learning\" README

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P 16-19: Another area of edpsych research is individual differences among learners; styles, prior knowledge, cognitive and personality variables, impulsive vs reflective, learning strategies, demographics.

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P 19-24: Motivation is another area of research. Behaviorism says reinforcement/punishment is the way to motivate; the cognitive paradigm says people are motivated by a desire to have a consistent understanding of the world. Other cognitive-style motivation topics: self-efficacy, goals, attribution theory (learners are motivated based on why they think they perform the way they do -- luck or hard work?) and goal orientation theory (mastery vs performance goal orientations) as well as self-determination theory (do learners think they're in control of their destiny?) Recently volition (what makes people pursue in the face of obstacles?) has come into attention.

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N: Brilliant paper that Teaching & Learning should read -send to Zhenya.

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N: This is THE ORIGINAL paper on \"wicked problems,\" written about policymaking and then adapted by othes to design/engineering/etc.

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Q 63: \"This paper represents an effort to introduce issues and concerns related to problem solving to the instructional design ocmmunity.\"

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N^: Audience!

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P 63-65: Let's talk about how to design instructional interventions that teach students problem-solving skills.

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Q 65: There are only two critical attributes of a problem. First, a problem is an unknown entity in some situation (the difference between a goal state and a current state)... Second, finding or solving for the unknown must have some social, cultural, or intellectual value. That is, someone believes that it is worth finding the unknown. Finding the unknown is the process of problem solving.

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P 66-68: Problems can vary by structure (do they come with complete information and a set of rules or not?), complexity (how many interrelations are between the components, and do they change over time?), and domain specificity (is it situated in a particular domain or can it be generalized abstractly?)

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P 68-72: The same problem can be given different setups; it can vary in terms of how they are represented, how familiar the solver is with that type of problem and what the solver is like, how well the solver knows the domain, their cognitive controls, epistemology, metacognitive skills, and affects (emotions/beliefs).

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P 72: Typology of problem solving:

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N^: It's interesting to think about how these intersect with Bloom's taxonomy and Piaget's developmental stages.

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P 76: examples of the various problem types

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P 395: Design is mental/cognitive.

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N ^: as opposed to...? Note that this was written in a journal titled \"cognitive science,\" though.

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P 399: Human designers are an information-processing system with a problem. Take a human with a memory and certain cognitive and physical capabilities, and place them in a situation with a goal and a problem, and you have a design situation.

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N ^: The positivistic viewpoint described by Dorst in \"The problem of design problems.\" Written in a statement-heavy style: lots of categories, lots of \"this is the way it is\" mechanics.

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Q 405: (in a footnote) \"There is nothing deep about there being three phases rather than n phases. Designers use these three phases to talk about their processes. We too found them useful for our purposes. It would certainly have been possible to do a finer-grained or coarser-grained individuation.

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N: This reads as if it were written by (stereotypical) engineers. I mean, they have phrases like \"incremental development of artifact\" and \"predominance of memory retrieval and nondemonstrative inference\" in a list of \"invariants found in the structure of... design problem spaces.\"

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N: I can't find citation information for this paper. Where is it from?

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P 1-2: design methodology consists of assumptions about the designer, the design task, and the design process. It mostly focuses on process and hasn't deeply considered the nature of tasks, other than to say \"they're wicked,\" even if the nature of tasks affects the processes that can be applied to them.

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P 2-3: design problems are underdetermined -- some parts are determined (\"we only have $10\") and some are undetermined (\"pick whatever color you like\") but there are also underdetermined elements (\"there are requirements, but they're incomplete and there's no one right answer.\")

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P 3-5: in response to the positivistic, rational (\"program a robot to do it\") paradigm, Schoen developed the phenomenological reflective practice paradigm and pointed out that \"design knowledge\" of what to do in a situation couldn't always be broken down and thought, but that students could be taught metacognitive strategies to help them develop that sense. This notion of reflecting to teach yourself is \"reflection-in-action.\"

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Q 6-7: Group- or organisational design processes tend to require a large number of objectifying statements and arguments (Valkenburg 2000) to
keep everyone on track. This is even more extreme in multidisciplinary teams, where the basic level of shared understanding necessary for the
completion of the job is more difficult to achieve

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Q 7: ...the decision whether a part of a design activity will involve 'objective' or 'subjective' interpretation ultimately rests with the designer working on the design problem.

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P 7-8: design problems and solutions co-evolve ; it's not \"here's the problem, fix that in stone -- then find a solution.\"

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N 9: Beautiful summary of Dreyfus (2003) here.

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P 10-11: We should design a research method that lets us study the behavior of designers in great detail without any preconceptions.

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N^: Um, isn't that impossible?

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