[ { "key": "CGQMFDFI", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 75404, "name": "NEUROLAW", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/CGQMFDFI", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw/items/CGQMFDFI", "type": "text/html" }, "up": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/9SCD7AN9", "type": "application/json" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } } }, "data": { "key": "CGQMFDFI", "version": 1, "parentItem": "9SCD7AN9", "itemType": "attachment", "linkMode": "linked_url", "title": "HighWire Full Text PDF", "accessDate": "2012-04-22T01:42:10Z", "url": "http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/69/3/283.pdf", "note": "", "contentType": "application/pdf", "charset": "", "tags": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-04-22T01:42:10Z", "dateModified": "2012-04-22T01:42:10Z" } }, { "key": "9SCD7AN9", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 75404, "name": "NEUROLAW", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/9SCD7AN9", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw/items/9SCD7AN9", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Harenski et al.", "parsedDate": "2012-03-01", "numChildren": 2 }, "data": { "key": "9SCD7AN9", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Increased Frontotemporal Activation During Pain Observation in Sexual Sadism: Preliminary Findings", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Carla L.", "lastName": "Harenski" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "David M.", "lastName": "Thornton" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Keith A.", "lastName": "Harenski" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Jean", "lastName": "Decety" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Kent A.", "lastName": "Kiehl" } ], "abstractNote": "Context Sexual sadism is a psychiatric disorder in which sexual pleasure is derived from inflicting pain, suffering, or humiliation on others. While the psychological and forensic aspects of sexual sadism have been well characterized, little is known about the neurocognitive circuitry associated with the disorder. Sexual sadists show increased peripheral sexual arousal when observing other individuals in pain. The neural mechanisms underlying this unusual response are not well understood. We predicted that sadists relative to nonsadists would show increased responses in brain regions associated with sexual arousal (amygdala, hypothalamus, and ventral striatum) and affective pain processing (anterior cingulate and anterior insula) during pain observation. Objective To study the neural correlates of pain observation in sadists and nonsadists. Design Case-control cross-sectional study. Sadists and nonsadists viewed 50 social scenes, 25 that depicted a person in pain (eg, one person stabbing another person's hand with scissors) and 25 thematically matched no-pain pictures (eg, one person stabbing a table with scissors, with another person's hand nearby). Pain severity ratings (range, 0 [none] to 4 [severe]) were acquired following each picture presentation. Setting Sand Ridge Secure Treatment Center, Mauston, Wisconsin. Participants Fifteen violent sexual offenders, including 8 sadists and 7 nonsadists (defined using the Severe Sexual Sadism Scale) who were matched for age, IQ, and education. Main Outcome Measures Hemodynamic response revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging and pain severity ratings. Results Sadists relative to nonsadists showed greater amygdala activation when viewing pain pictures. They also rated pain pictures higher on pain severity than nonsadists. Sadists but not nonsadists showed a positive correlation between pain severity ratings and activity in the anterior insula. 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"createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Kolber", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "4XWTACWP", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Unintentional Punishment", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Adam J.", "lastName": "Kolber" } ], "abstractNote": "Criminal law theorists overwhelmingly agree that for some conduct to constitute punishment, it must be imposed intentionally. Some retributivists have argued that because punishment consists only of intentional inflictions, theories of punishment can ignore the merely foreseen hardships of prison, such as the mental and emotional distress inmates experience. Though such distress is foreseen, it is not intended, and so it is technically not punishment. In this essay, I explain why theories of punishment must pay close attention to the unintentional burdens of punishment. In two very important contexts — punishment measurement and justification — we use the term “punishment” to capture not only intentional harsh treatment but certain unintentional harsh treatment as well. This means that the widely accepted view that punishment is an intentional infliction requires substantial caveats. It also means that any purported justification of punishment that addresses only the intentional infliction of punishment is woefully incomplete. [This paper has been published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license.]", "publicationTitle": "SSRN eLibrary", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1945286", "accessDate": "2012-04-14T19:01:19Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "SSRN", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Consequentialism", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Intention", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Punishment", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Retributivism", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Subjective Experience", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "32ARPNBT" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-04-14T19:01:19Z", "dateModified": "2012-04-14T19:01:19Z" } }, { "key": "7C263SX2", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 75404, "name": "NEUROLAW", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/7C263SX2", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw/items/7C263SX2", "type": "text/html" }, "up": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/4A4SHZTJ", "type": "application/json" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } } }, "data": { "key": "7C263SX2", "version": 1, "parentItem": "4A4SHZTJ", "itemType": "attachment", "linkMode": "linked_url", "title": "Snapshot", "accessDate": "2012-04-14T18:50:26Z", "url": "http://www.sciencemag.org/content/305/5688/1254.short", "note": "", "contentType": "text/html", "charset": "", "tags": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-04-14T18:50:26Z", "dateModified": "2012-04-14T18:50:26Z" } }, { "key": "4A4SHZTJ", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 75404, "name": "NEUROLAW", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/4A4SHZTJ", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw/items/4A4SHZTJ", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "De Quervain et al.", "parsedDate": "2004-08-27", "numChildren": 2 }, "data": { "key": "4A4SHZTJ", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "The Neural Basis of Altruistic Punishment", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Dominique J. -F", "lastName": "De Quervain" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Urs", "lastName": "Fischbacher" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Valerie", "lastName": "Treyer" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Melanie", "lastName": "Schellhammer" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Ulrich", "lastName": "Schnyder" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Alfred", "lastName": "Buck" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Ernst", "lastName": "Fehr" } ], "abstractNote": "Many people voluntarily incur costs to punish violations of social norms. Evolutionary models and empirical evidence indicate that such altruistic punishment has been a decisive force in the evolution of human cooperation. We used H2 15O positron emission tomography to examine the neural basis for altruistic punishment of defectors in an economic exchange. Subjects could punish defection either symbolically or effectively. Symbolic punishment did not reduce the defector's economic payoff, whereas effective punishment did reduce the payoff. We scanned the subjects' brains while they learned about the defector's abuse of trust and determined the punishment. Effective punishment, as compared with symbolic punishment, activated the dorsal striatum, which has been implicated in the processing of rewards that accrue as a result of goal-directed actions. Moreover, subjects with stronger activations in the dorsal striatum were willing to incur greater costs in order to punish. Our findings support the hypothesis that people derive satisfaction from punishing norm violations and that the activation in the dorsal striatum reflects the anticipated satisfaction from punishing defectors.", "publicationTitle": "Science", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "08/27/2004", "volume": "305", "issue": "5688", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "1254-1258", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "Science", "DOI": "10.1126/science.1100735", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://www.sciencemag.org/content/305/5688/1254", "accessDate": "2012-04-14T18:50:26Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "0036-8075, 1095-9203", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "en", "libraryCatalog": "www.sciencemag.org", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [ "32ARPNBT" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-04-14T18:50:26Z", "dateModified": "2012-04-14T18:50:26Z" } }, { "key": "XZX2NHII", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 75404, "name": "NEUROLAW", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/XZX2NHII", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw/items/XZX2NHII", "type": "text/html" }, "up": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/4A4SHZTJ", "type": "application/json" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } } }, "data": { "key": "XZX2NHII", "version": 1, "parentItem": "4A4SHZTJ", "itemType": "attachment", "linkMode": "linked_url", "title": "Full Text PDF", "accessDate": "2012-04-14T18:50:26Z", "url": "http://www.sciencemag.org/content/305/5688/1254.full.pdf", "note": "", "contentType": "application/pdf", "charset": "", "tags": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-04-14T18:50:26Z", "dateModified": "2012-04-14T18:50:26Z" } }, { "key": "NZT8TFJC", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 75404, "name": "NEUROLAW", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/NZT8TFJC", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw/items/NZT8TFJC", "type": "text/html" }, "up": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/C5CGM27F", "type": "application/json" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } } }, "data": { "key": "NZT8TFJC", "version": 1, "parentItem": "C5CGM27F", "itemType": "attachment", "linkMode": "linked_url", "title": "Full Text PDF", "accessDate": "2012-04-14T18:41:00Z", "url": "http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v415/n6868/pdf/415137a.pdf", "note": "", "contentType": "application/pdf", "charset": "", "tags": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-04-14T18:41:00Z", "dateModified": "2012-04-14T18:41:00Z" } }, { "key": "C5CGM27F", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 75404, "name": "NEUROLAW", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/C5CGM27F", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw/items/C5CGM27F", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Fehr and G|[auml]|chter", "parsedDate": "2002-01-10", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "C5CGM27F", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Altruistic punishment in humans", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Ernst", "lastName": "Fehr" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Simon", "lastName": "G|[auml]|chter" } ], "abstractNote": "Human cooperation is an evolutionary puzzle. Unlike other creatures, people frequently cooperate with genetically unrelated strangers, often in large groups, with people they will never meet again, and when reputation gains are small or absent. These patterns of cooperation cannot be explained by the nepotistic motives associated with the evolutionary theory of kin selection and the selfish motives associated with signalling theory or the theory of reciprocal altruism. Here we show experimentally that the altruistic punishment of defectors is a key motive for the explanation of cooperation. Altruistic punishment means that individuals punish, although the punishment is costly for them and yields no material gain. We show that cooperation flourishes if altruistic punishment is possible, and breaks down if it is ruled out. The evidence indicates that negative emotions towards defectors are the proximate mechanism behind altruistic punishment. These results suggest that future study of the evolution of human cooperation should include a strong focus on explaining altruistic punishment.", "publicationTitle": "Nature", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "2002-01-10", "volume": "415", "issue": "6868", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "137-140", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "10.1038/415137a", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v415/n6868/abs/415137a.html", "accessDate": "2012-04-14T18:41:00Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "0028-0836", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "en", "libraryCatalog": "www.nature.com", "callNumber": "", "rights": "© 2002 Nature Publishing Group", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "DNA", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Nature", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neuroscience", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "RNA", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Science", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "astronomy", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "astrophysics", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "biochemistry", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "bioinformatics", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "biology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "biotechnology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "cancer", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "cell cycle", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "cell signalling", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "climate change", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "computational biology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "development", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "developmental biology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "drug discovery", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "earth science", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "ecology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "environmental science", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "evolution", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "evolutionary biology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "functional genomics", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "genetics", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "genomics", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "geophysics", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "immunology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "interdisciplinary science", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "life", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "marine biology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "materials science", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "medical research", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "medicine", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "metabolomics", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "molecular biology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "molecular interactions", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "nanotechnology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "neurobiology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "palaeobiology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "pharmacology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "physics", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "proteomics", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "quantum physics", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "science news", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "science policy", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "signal transduction", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "structural biology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "systems biology", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "transcriptomics", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "32ARPNBT" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-04-14T18:41:00Z", "dateModified": "2012-04-14T18:41:00Z" } }, { "key": "3MKDZST9", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 75404, "name": "NEUROLAW", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/3MKDZST9", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw/items/3MKDZST9", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Simpson", "parsedDate": "2012-02-17", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "3MKDZST9", "version": 1, "itemType": "book", "title": "Neuroimaging in Forensic Psychiatry: From Clinic to the Courtroom", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Joseph R", "lastName": "Simpson" } ], "abstractNote": "This important volume is the first to address the use of neuroimaging in civil and criminal forensic contexts and to include discussion of prior precedents and court decisions. Equally useful for practicing psychiatrists and psychologists, it reviews both the legal and ethical consideraitons of neuroimaging.", "series": "", "seriesNumber": "", "volume": "", "numberOfVolumes": "", "edition": "", "date": "2012-02-17", "publisher": "John Wiley & Sons", "place": "", "originalDate": "", "originalPublisher": "", "originalPlace": "", "format": "", "numPages": "399", "ISBN": "9781119968894", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "Neuroimaging in Forensic Psychiatry", "language": "en", "libraryCatalog": "Google Books", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Medical / Forensic Medicine", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Medical / Psychiatry / General", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "32ARPNBT" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-04-12T23:04:08Z", "dateModified": "2012-04-12T23:04:08Z" } }, { "key": "J5MCMTM3", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 75404, "name": "NEUROLAW", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/J5MCMTM3", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw/items/J5MCMTM3", "type": "text/html" }, "up": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/3MKDZST9", "type": "application/json" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } } }, "data": { "key": "J5MCMTM3", "version": 1, "parentItem": "3MKDZST9", "itemType": "attachment", "linkMode": "linked_url", "title": "Google Books Link", "accessDate": "2012-04-12T23:04:08Z", "url": "http://books.google.com/books?id=HJExLyy5ZvEC", "note": "", "contentType": "text/html", "charset": "", "tags": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-04-12T23:04:08Z", "dateModified": "2012-04-12T23:04:08Z" } }, { "key": "8HMU37A6", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 75404, "name": "NEUROLAW", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/8HMU37A6", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw/items/8HMU37A6", "type": "text/html" }, "up": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/QQTXIMKN", "type": "application/json" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } } }, "data": { "key": "8HMU37A6", "version": 1, "parentItem": "QQTXIMKN", "itemType": "attachment", "linkMode": "linked_url", "title": "Snapshot", "accessDate": "2012-04-12T23:03:42Z", "url": "http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119968900.ch18/summary", "note": "", "contentType": "text/html", "charset": "", "tags": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2012-04-12T23:03:42Z", "dateModified": "2012-04-12T23:03:42Z" } }, { "key": "QQTXIMKN", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 75404, "name": "NEUROLAW", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/75404/items/QQTXIMKN", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/neurolaw/items/QQTXIMKN", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 986961, "username": "sashad", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/sashad", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Ford and Aggarwal", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "QQTXIMKN", "version": 1, "itemType": "bookSection", "title": "Neuroethics of Functional Neuroimaging in the Courtroom", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Elizabeth", "lastName": "Ford" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Neil", "lastName": "Aggarwal" }, { "creatorType": "editor", "firstName": "Joseph R.", "lastName": "Simpson" } ], "abstractNote": "This chapter reviews ethical debates regarding the use of neuroimaging in the courtroom. First, a definition of neuroethics and brief historical outline are offered for context. Next, neuroethical concerns around the quality of scientific standards in neuroimaging are explored in depth. Debates for and against the use of unproven technology are presented, especially concerning the application of functional imaging for lie detection. The uncertainty of expert witness qualifications and the social meanings of the images, with their potential to sway jurors, healthcare professionals, and insurance companies, also introduce new ethical dilemmas as mental disorders increasingly become physically characterized through evolving technologies. Privacy, informed consent, the prediction of future dangerousness, and prejudice on the basis of positive findings are some of the neuroethical issues confronting the scanned subject. 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It has been established as a standard form of treatment for specific cases of Parkinson's disease, essential tremor and dystonia. It is currently being evaluated for several mental disorders, dementia and even alcoholism. In spite of its growing practical importance, the legal issues have so far undergone almost no analysis. 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