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"note": " This anthology is part of the “Ashgate Critical Essays on Women Writers in England, 1550-1700” series, which familiarizes readers with the diverse, but understudied body of early modern women’s writing. Focusing on the life and works of Elizabeth Cary, Raber’s amalgamation of texts on the early seventeenth-century writer is extensive. The introduction alone (made up of a comprehensive six sections) is a significant resource for any researcher of Cary. Raber begins by discussing the ambiguities that surround Cary’s life and her works and calls attention not only to the wide breadth of interpretations that her writings evoke, but moreover emphasizes the need for ever more research. The next subsection discusses the vision of Cary’s life that has remained due to her daughter’s biography The Lady Falkland: Her Life, and the fact that her personal narrative has literarily eclipsed her own written works for so long. In addition, she thoroughly outlines the trajectory of Cary’s works (particularly Tragedy of Mariam), from their fall into obscurity to their reemergence (alongside many other early modern women writers) in the 1970s feminist literary circles. Moreover, she discusses the problems with the plethora of scholarly articles which use The Life, in particular, as a platform off of which to make bibliographical arguments about Cary’s works. In the following subsection, Raber discusses the reappearance of Cary’s writings in regards to the issues of editions — attributing one of the reasons why Mariam and other works had so long gone unnoticed to the fact that there were not any affordable, usable editions available to the public (mostly, until its subsequent publication in anthologies). She also discusses (and dismisses) the question of attribution that has followed Cary’s writings. Next, Raber gives an overview of the discourses that surround (particularly female) subjecthood and subjectivity in The Tragedy of Mariam — through the lenses of marriage, social and political relations, and the body, and the racialized body. In the penultimate section of the Introduction, Raber discusses the context of The Tragedy of Mariam within the tradition of Senecan-style closet drama and the way in which this context (or the lack of) has shaped criticism from the late twentieth-century onwards. She also discusses the confusing contextual clues that Cary has left behind for her other prominent work, The History of Edward II. Moreover, she importantly reminds the reader that, despite the fascination of scholars with historical and political interpretations, what Cary was most interested in was religion, and she subsequently questions the role of religion in the writer’s literary biography and the context of her life and her works. Lastly, this introduction discusses “Future Directions” in Cary criticism and significantly points out the many gaping holes that still exist, such as the lack of a comprehensive biography; the emphasis on Mariam and not other works. Most importantly, she reframes Cary criticism in a universal light by asking the question: “what will the success of feminism mean for the study of gender and women authors?” Pointing out that every generationn “has recreated Cary in the image it needed,” Raber makes the appeal for honest, thorough, and always thought-provoking research so that Cary and her contemporary female writers do not risk, once again, falling into oblivion (xxviii).
In the next section, Zimmerman provides an enormous selected bibliography for further research in addition to a chronological outline of Cary’s life and works. The rest of the anthology is divided into four sections: Part I “The Life and/In the Work,” Part II, “The Tragedy of Mariam, Fair Queen of Jewry,” Part III “The History of the Life, Reign, and Death of Edward II,” and Part IV “Cary in Comparison.” Each section contains relevant critical articles from a diverse body of scholarly journals. A select few of the articles can be found electronically (through CLIO, accessible with UNI), but most are only available in print in the anthology or their respective journals. While the entire anthology provides a meaningful resource to anybody studying Cary and The Tragedy of Mariam (it might be useful to consider this earlier text in relation to her later work, The History of Edward), the sections that would be of the most use would be Part I and II. The articles that appear in the first section (Elaine Beilin’s “Elizabeth Cary and The Tragedie of Mariam,” Donald W. Foster’s “Resurrecting the AUthor: Elizabeth Tanfield Cary,” Meredith Skura’s “The Reproduction of Mothering in Mariam, Queen of Jewry: A Defense of ‘Biographical’ Criticism,” and Heather Wolfe’s “A Family Affair: The Life and Letters of Elizabeth Cary, Lady Falkland”) partake in the critical discourse that surrounds Cary’s life and the ways in which it may or may not have informed The Tragedy of Mariam. The second section has a much more diverse body of critical literature, which excavate overarching themes of genre, political (in)stability, social structures, female identity, domesticity, race, gendered speech, religion, and more. The readings in this section include three under the heading of “Genre” (Nancy A. Gutierrez’s “Valuing Mariam: Genre Study and Feminist Analysis,” Rosemary Kegl’s “Theaters, Households, and a ‘Kind of History’ in Elizabeth Cary’s The Tragedy of Mariam,” Marta Straznicky’s “‘Profane Stoical Paradoxes’: The Tragedy of Mariam and Sidneian Closet Drama”) and six under the heading of “Social and Political Contexts (Dympna Callaghan’s “Re-Reading Elizabeth Cary’s The Tragedie of Mariam, Faire Queene of Jewry,” France E. Dolan’s “Reading, Work, and Catholic Women’s Biographies,” Margert W. Ferguson’s “Allegories of Imperial Subjection: Literacy as Equivocation in Elizabeth Cary’s Tragedy of Mariam,” Heather E. Ostman’s “Backbiters, Flatterers, and Monarchs: Domestic Politics in The Tragedy of Mariam,” Kimberly Woosley Poitevin’s “‘Counterfeit Colour’: Making Up Race in Elizabeth Cary’s The Tragedy of Mariam,” and Laurie J. Shannon’s “The Tragedy of Mariam: Cary’s Critique of the Terms of Founding Social Discourses.” Each essay includes comprehensive footnotes and or further reading lists, which can aid the researcher. These four sections are followed by a comprehensive ten page Index.
Overall, Raber’s Ashgate Critical Essays is an invaluable resource to any researcher on Cary and her Tragedy of Mariam. Not only does the book provide a plethora of resources, which excavate Cary’s play from a multiplicity of perspectives, but also Raber’s extensive Introduction, bibliography, and timeline, are incredible starting points for any student interested in the early modern writer. While the monumentally sized text might be daunting, Raber breaks it up into well-defined and easily navigable sections.
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"note": " Dramatic Difference explores the genre of closet drama through in depth analyses of Mary Sidney’s Antoine, Fulk Greville’s Mustafa, Elizabeth Cary’s Tragedy of Mariam, and Margaret Cavendish’s Playes. Racer’s introduction discusses the wide-range of early modern closet drama and the ever-evolving lenses through which critics have viewed the confounding genre. Focusing mostly on early modern women writers, Raber constructs a powerful argument that refocuses the study of closet drama in relation to contemporary modes of theatrical drama. She argues that “closet drama operates on a frontier, delineating… the socially and politically sensitive boundary between theatrical playing, with all its related institutions and practices, and the less theatrically determined writerly practices of dramatizing persons, events, and issues” (15). Because closet drama is not tied to particulars of the stage, it becomes “a locus for examination of dramatic form digested and removed” from these practicalities, and moreover, allows for a powerful abstraction of Renaissance concepts of selfhood, identity, and in reflection how such concepts produce forms of power” (16). In this way, this unique drama opens and bridges tensions betweenn the closet (“the conceptual space of removal or distance from public life”) and the stage (“which represents full engagement with a public world and its pressures”) (33).
The chapter which is most relevant to this study is “Gender, Genre, and the State: Elizabeth Cary’s The Tragedy of Mariam.” In the first section of this chapter, entitled, “Gender and the Political Subject” Raber explores the drama’s political tensions, the creation of a gendered political subjectivity, and how these factors, in turn, affect genre. Marriage, Raber suggests, helps construe notions of domestic and political subjectivity, and thusly the patriarchal household and monarchical state converge. Mariam, says Raber, argues that“any regime that demands women’s purity and silence, yet is susceptible to seduction by their most cynical rhetoric, must look within itself for the causes of disaffection and rebellion” (172). The second portion of this chapter, “Genre and the Political Subject,” explores the ways in which genre interacts with the construction of women as domestic rather than political subjects. Raber interrogates the emphasis on make-up in both Mariam and stage practices, which leads her into an exploration of the reasons why women have been excluded from the stage and in what way the absence of women’s bodies (and writing) is serviceable to the state. Conversely, she crafts an argument that reassesses the “antitheatrical” nature of Cary’s closet drama, by looking specifically at the writer’s construction of Herod (and Herod’s tyrannical murder) in relation to Mariam, and thusly suggests that in Mariam, Cary “gestures toward the boundaries between her chosen form of drama, and the forms of drama precluded by her gender, result in a powerful dismantling of state authority and state power” (187).
Ultimately, this chapter celebrates Cary’s position as a writer, and in the theme of the classes, illuminates the ways in which, as a woman, she “capitalizes on the genre constraints she has accepted as a woman writer” (187) Overall, Dramatic Differences will provide a useful resource to researches interested in themes of genre, gender, subjecthood, and state in Mariam. In addition, this work helps situation Mariam in a larger narrative and tradition of closet drama, which Raber skillfully reassesses. The final two sections of the book include a large bibliography of primary and secondary source texts related to early modern closet drama and a twenty-nine page index.
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"note": " Dido’s Daughters is a captivating and compelling narrative that chronicles the interactions between literacy, gender, and state in early modern women’s writing. Fittingly, Ferguson chooses Dido as muse and guide for her exploration. Having escaped her fate in more than one way and having not fallen victim to narrative confinement, the mythological figure is “an emblem for a human departure from a foreordained historical narrative” (2). In Dido’s spirit, Ferguson “approach[es] this reconstructed site” where literacy, nationalism, and gender differences converge, “as if it were a stage with changing scenes” (1). Dido’s Daughters is composed of two overarching sections, “Theoretical and Historical Considerations” and “Literacy in Action and in Fantasy.” The chapter “Allegories of Imperial Selection,” which remains under the second overarching section, is that which pertains most to the researcher of Elizabeth Cary’s The Tragedy of Mariam.
In this section, Ferguson explores “literacy as equivocation” or a mode of female literacy “that relies on several types of equivocation to articulate (but also to disguise) a critical perspective on England as an imperial nation” as presented in Cary’s closet drama (265). In comparing the two realms within which the closet drama exists (ancient Judea in the years before Christ’s birth and Tudor-Stuart England) Ferguson explore the problem of censorship in the play in parallel to the closet drama’s actual “status as the literate product of a political situation of censorship and persecution” (265).
“Literacy as Equivocation” can be an important and foundational text to any student exploring Cary’s The Tragedy of Mariam. Ferguson’s complex reading bridges themes of literacy, politics, gender dynamics, race, and power, in the context of both the imagined Judea and the implied, historical Tudor-Stuart England.
Dido’s Daughters includes a select bibliography, which can act as an important tool for the researcher. In addition to print, the book can be accessed on ProQuest ebrary (accessible through CLIO with UNI).
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"note": "“Be and Seem”: Contradictions in the
Critical Literature of Tragedy of Mariam
“Be and Seem,” the inscription that Elizabeth Cary commissioned on her daughter’s wedding band, emblematizes the contradictions that are scattered throughout our critical understanding and representations of the life and works of this early modern writer (Raber, xiii). Depictions of Cary, whether in visual art or writing, either choose a decisive lens through which to present her or honor the ambiguity that clouds her character and writings. This bibliography takes on the latter method, which is why it consists of many more books and anthologies as opposed to decisively one-sided articles.
In beginning my research, I was not surprised by the breadth, depth, and passion of the writings on Cary, who had immediately captured my imagination as well. Because of the incredible range of writings, I tried to narrow down my topic to Cary’s construction of race and gender, the role of closet drama, motherhood and domesticity, or the literary significance and legacy of Mariam. Bombarded by so many fascinating, contradictory pieces of criticism, the task was not as simple as I thought it would be. Instead of tracing a singular theme, I realized that it would be more fruitful for me to trace a critical history of Mariam.
In the centuries following her death, Cary’s literary accomplishments were largely neglected, though her spirit was kept alive in the popularity of her daughter’s biography The Lady Falkland: Her Life (Raber, xiv). It was not until the 1970s that Cary’s works were rediscovered in the feminist push to resurrect women writings that had long ago been forgotten. The play was not readily accessible to the public until a 1992 reprint of the original spelling text, or moreover, until 1994 when Barry Weller and Margaret Ferguson introduced a definitive paperback edition with footnotes and an introduction (Raber, xv).
The first major essay on Mariam was Nancy Cotton Pearse’s 1977 “Elizabeth Cary, Renaissance Playwright,” followed by Elaine Beilin’s 1980 “Elizabeth Cary and the Tragedie of Mariam,” both of which were interpreted through a biographical lens. Margaret Ferguson, Barbara Lewalski, and Donald Foster are only a few other scholars who have found the connections between Cary’s life and works to be immensely compelling.
As many have pointed out, however, the information that exists on Cary’s life is not concrete. The Lady Falkland: Her Life reads much more as a sensationalized and carefully crafted allegory of “stoic martyrdom” that is limited to Cary’s presence in the domestic world (Raber, xv). Many feminist writers, in turn, saw the biographical interpretation as an extremely narrowing lens, and forsook it in favor of an argument that emphasized genre and the radical transgression implied in the act of writing. Such arguments often cite the various poetic and plot devices that Cary uses to subtly subvert patriarchy, while remaining in an established framework of “apparent” accord (through use of the closet drama genre). Feminist perspectives also pursue the parallels evident between the power dynamics of the household and those of the monarch, often illuminating the ways in which Mariam’s relationship with Herod has larger socio-political ramifications.
In 1994, Dympna Callaghan made an important contribution with “Re-Reading Elizabeth Cary’s The Tragedie of Mariam” to the feminist readings of Mariam, by pointing out the tradition of overlooking the blatant issue of race in the drama. Kim Hall’s “Beauty and the Beast of Whiteness: Teaching Race and Gender” (1996) and Kimberly Woosley Poitevin’s “Counterfeit Colour” (2005) contribute to the study of racial construction and representation in Mariam.
These are only a few of the directions in which criticism in Mariam has traveled. Overall, the critical history of Mariam is fraught with contradictions and ambiguities. Instead of trying to resolve them, this bibliography celebrates the multiplicity of perspectives that Mariam invites and attempts to offer a brief overview of literature that can be representative of the enormous complex body of scholarly work on Mariam that exists today. While in no means comprehensive, this bibliography is a starting point for anyone interested in the paradoxes that complicate Cary’s life and literature and the ways in which scholars have either embraced or tried to fix them. Ultimately, the kaleidoscopic nature of Mariam is a testament to the drama’s import and relevance to the modern day subject. More than anything, this bibliography is a celebration of this complex and unresolvable woman and her art, as well as a call for her rousing literature to be read alongside her contemporary male writers.
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"note": " Callaghan’s article is a significant resource for researchers of The Tragedy of Mariam for two main reasons. Firstly, her essay includes a valuable summary, and moreover, critique of the patterns and traps to which feminist criticism of the play has fallen. The first three sections of the article construct a narrative of this criticism and explain the common interpretations or methods of reading Mariam. Criticism until then, Callaghan notes, focuses on the role of the woman-writer, the relation between Cary’s biography and the text, Cary’s conversion to Catholicism, and the parallel between marriage and monarchy. Callaghan summarizes these arguments and points to various critical works that represent these paradigms. By focusing on and recognizing gender dynamics, but not racial dynamics, many of these feminist arguments, Callaghan suggests, are essentialist and reductive, and ultimately contribute to the “domesticat[ion] of the play’s radical otherness” (167). Callaghan’s summation and interrogation of previous critical works is helpful to the researcher not only because it can give them an idea of existing literature, but also because she provides a compelling framework through which to understand other writings on Mariam. In this way, Callaghan’s article can be a helpful source for the beginning of research.
“Re-Reading” is also a helpful resource due to the argument that Callaghan articulates in the second section of her essay, which explores the ways in which race informs gender and social class in Mariam. While race informs the binary categorization of women as “virtuous” or “licentious,” ultimately, by setting the play in Palestine, “a country of others,” these binaries break down as the women are “peoples of an allegedly already compromised ethnicity” (170). Palestine, then, is a chosen setting, in which Cary can “unbalance the polarized binarisms which constituted the category ‘woman.’ (170). This article would therefore be helpful to any student pursuing questions of race, gender, identity, social class, power, and historical context in Mariam.
Lastly, Callaghan’s article is punctuated with a comprehensive list of notes, which link to further reading and explications of both the trajectory of literary criticism on Mariam and the significance of race in relation to gender in the closet drama. For more articles on the role of race in Mariam, see Kimberly Wooseley Poetevin’s “Counterfeit and Color” (2005) and Kim Hall’s “Beauty and Beast of Whiteness: Teaching Race and Gender” (1996).
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"note": " Similar to Callaghan’s article, “Cary’s Critique of the Terms of Founding Social Discourses” puts previous critical works on Mariam in discussion with one another and articulates an entirely new and valuable argument. In the first section of her article, Shannon emphasizes the two strains of writing on Mariam that have emerged. In the first, scholars use biography use as a hermeneutic tool and rely upon her gender “as a key to understanding… meaning” (136).In the second, scholars emphasize on the obstacles of women writing and thusly the transgressive potential of the female authorial voice. In the fourth, fifth, and sixth sections of her article, Shannon gives examples of each of these modes of writing about Mariam and explores them in relation to one another. The first text she describes is “Making of a Female Hero,” a chapter in Elaine Beilin’s Redeeming Eve. Here, Beilin deeply connects Cary’s lived experience as a woman and wife to the narrative of the play. She goes as far as to suggest that the play is a sort of “wish fulfillment,” in which Mariam, a fantastical version of Cary, turns into a “type of Christ” (141). The second text Shannon describes is Nancy Gutierrez’s “Valuing Mariam: Genre Study and Feminist Analysis.” As opposed to the biographical approach of Beilin, Gutierrez emphasizes the extra-textual significance of Cary’s act of writing, and articulates an understanding of writing and texts as “envelopes of the author’s self or sex, of personal expression, of individual, gendered voice” (142-3). Moreover, she points out the “revisionary engagement of patriarchal constructs” involved in women’s writing that “transform a variety of discourses as a means of self-expression\" (142). By putting these two opposing discourses into dialogue, Shannon provides a useful source for researchers to better understand the multiplicity of ways in which Mariam has been read.
Furthermore, by juxtaposing these two arguments, Shannon is then able to build a historical and philosophical argument that bridges the divide between the two methods and privileges both the historical context of Cary’s life and the transgression and power in the act of women’s writing. Shannon argues that “Cary addresses the impossibility of moral stability or purity when an authority creates laws whose ‘justice’ operates to the detriment of those to whom the law applies” (350). Interestingly, she invokes the twentieth century notion of différend to describe the danger that Cary invokes. Both steeped in contemporary issues of Turdor-Stuart England and foreshadowing times to come, the play, Shannon suggests, “questions the moral duties and natural rights of obedience and resistance when the citizen/subject of the law finds herself an object of its operation” (136). “What appears to be a domestic issue,” Shannon concludes, “spirals out to become social chaos” (137). In this way, the article will be helpful to any student who is looking for a background body of criticism as well as any student who is interested in the social politics of Tudor-Stuart England, the philosophical, historical, and political ramifications of Mariam, as well as the ways in which Mariam is a transgressive piece of literature.
This source also includes detailed annotations, which can link the reader to other valuable sources.
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\n
\nPart III of this critical anthology pertains to Early Modern women dramatists, including Elizabeth Cary. The selected scholarly essays in this section on Cary are written by Elaine V. Beilin, Margaret W. Ferguson, and Barbara Kiefer Lewalski. These critical texts are crucial for a complete understanding of The Tragedy of Mariam and are frequently cited by other scholars, but for the purposes of this collection, I have chosen to make this a supplemental text. In addition to these three essays, Part I of the anthology includes early commentaries on the “First Modern Edition of Mariam (1914)” and “Cary and ‘A Woman’s Duty’ (1940).” Other essays about other dramatists, notably Mary Sidney, might also be useful background information for a more involved discussion of The Tragedy of Mariam.
\n
\nThis source is available in print as a part of the Columbia University Library Catalogue (accessible at Butler Library), as well as online through CLIO (accessible only with UNI) and through Ebary and the International Bibliography of Theatre and Dance.
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