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Others have studied the health effects of foods that are preferred or avoided by vegetarians. The purpose of this review is to look critically at the evidence on the health effects of vegetarian diets and to seek possible explanations where results appear to conflict. There is convincing evidence that vegetarians have lower rates of coronary heart disease, largely explained by low LDL cholesterol, probable lower rates of hypertension and diabetes mellitus, and lower prevalence of obesity. Overall, their cancer rates appear to be moderately lower than others living in the same communities, and life expectancy appears to be greater. However, results for specific cancers are much less convincing and require more study. There is evidence that risk of colorectal cancer is lower in vegetarians and in those who eat less meat; however, results from British vegetarians presently disagree, and this needs explanation. It is probable that using the label “vegetarian” as a dietary category is too broad and that our understanding will be served well by dividing vegetarians into more descriptive subtypes. Although vegetarian diets are healthful and are associated with lower risk of several chronic diseases, different types of vegetarians may not experience the same effects on health.", "publicationTitle": "The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "May 01 , 2009", "volume": "89", "issue": "5", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "1607S -1612S", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736K", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://www.ajcn.org/content/89/5/1607S.abstract", "accessDate": "2011-01-30T17:30:04Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "Vegetarian diets", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "Highwire 2.0", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2011-02-02T03:48:00Z", "dateModified": "2011-02-02T03:48:00Z" } }, { "key": "QVWN4EN7", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 36638, "name": "Vegetarian Diet GCSU Research 5600", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/vegetarian_diet_gcsu_research_5600", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/36638/items/QVWN4EN7", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/vegetarian_diet_gcsu_research_5600/items/QVWN4EN7", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 496822, "username": "alirobbins", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/alirobbins", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Craig", "parsedDate": "2009-05-01", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "QVWN4EN7", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Health effects of vegan diets", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Winston J", "lastName": "Craig" } ], "abstractNote": "Recently, vegetarian diets have experienced an increase in popularity. A vegetarian diet is associated with many health benefits because of its higher content of fiber, folic acid, vitamins C and E, potassium, magnesium, and many phytochemicals and a fat content that is more unsaturated. Compared with other vegetarian diets, vegan diets tend to contain less saturated fat and cholesterol and more dietary fiber. Vegans tend to be thinner, have lower serum cholesterol, and lower blood pressure, reducing their risk of heart disease. However, eliminating all animal products from the diet increases the risk of certain nutritional deficiencies. Micronutrients of special concern for the vegan include vitamins B-12 and D, calcium, and long-chain n–3 (omega-3) fatty acids. Unless vegans regularly consume foods that are fortified with these nutrients, appropriate supplements should be consumed. In some cases, iron and zinc status of vegans may also be of concern because of the limited bioavailability of these minerals.", "publicationTitle": "The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "May 01 , 2009", "volume": "89", "issue": "5", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "1627S -1633S", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736N", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://www.ajcn.org/content/89/5/1627S.abstract", "accessDate": "2011-01-30T17:27:58Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "Highwire 2.0", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2011-02-02T03:46:03Z", "dateModified": "2011-02-02T03:46:03Z" } }, { "key": "KEAB7JHW", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 36638, "name": "Vegetarian Diet GCSU Research 5600", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/vegetarian_diet_gcsu_research_5600", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/36638/items/KEAB7JHW", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/vegetarian_diet_gcsu_research_5600/items/KEAB7JHW", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 496822, "username": "alirobbins", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/alirobbins", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Haddad et al.", "parsedDate": "1999", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "KEAB7JHW", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Dietary intake and biochemical, hematologic, and immune status of vegans compared with nonvegetarians", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Ella H", "lastName": "Haddad" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Lee S", "lastName": "Berk" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "James D", "lastName": "Kettering" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Richard W", "lastName": "Hubbard" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Warren R", "lastName": "Peters" } ], "abstractNote": "Dietary and nutritional status of individuals habitually consuming a vegan diet was evaluated by biochemical, hematologic,\nand immunologic measures in comparison with a nonvegetarian group. On the basis of 4-d dietary records, the intake of female\nand male vegans tended to be lower in fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, and cholesterol and higher in dietary fiber\nthan that of vegetarians. With computed food and supplement intakes, vegan diets provided significantly higher amounts of\nascorbate, folate, magnesium, copper, and manganese in both female and male participants. The body mass index (BMI; in kg/m2) of the vegans was significantly lower than that of the nonvegetarians and 9 of the 25 vegans had a BMI <19. Serum ferritin\nconcentrations were significantly lower in vegan men but iron and zinc status did not differ between the sexes. Mean serum\nvitamin B-12 and methylmalonic acid concentrations did not differ; however, 10 of the 25 vegans showed a vitamin B-12 deficit\nmanifested by macrocytosis, circulating vitamin B-12 concentrations <150 pmol/L, or serum methylmalonic acid >376 nmol/L.\nVegans had significantly lower leukocyte, lymphocyte, and platelet counts and lower concentrations of complement factor 3\nand blood urea nitrogen but higher serum albumin concentrations. Vegans did not differ from nonvegetarians in functional immunocompetence\nassessed as mitogen stimulation or natural killer cell cytotoxic activity.", "publicationTitle": "The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "1999", "volume": "70", "issue": "3", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "586S -593S", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://www.ajcn.org/content/70/3/586S.abstract", "accessDate": "2011-01-30T17:36:05Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "Highwire 2.0", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2011-02-02T03:45:59Z", "dateModified": "2011-02-02T03:45:59Z" } } ]