Extracted Annotations (10/7/2014, 4:41:33 PM)
\n\"Findings reveal that the biggest challenges to adopting the use of new technologies were hardware incompatibility; complexity; language barriers; the lack of electricity, computers, Internet access, and of practice for trainees; and the inability to understand the advantages of these technologies.\" (Richardson 2011:9)
\n\"TABLE 1 Innovation Characteristics Characteristic Description Relative advantage Degree to which an innovation is perceived as a better idea Compatibility Degree of consistency with one's values, experiences, and needs Complexity Perceived degree of difficulty with using the innovation Observability Degree to which one can see results of using the innovation Trialability Degree to which the innovation can be experimented with or practiced\" (Richardson 2011:11)
\n\"Rogers defined adoption as “a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available” (2003, 473). Rogers's model seeks to explain the processes by which innovations are adopted by members of a society. As shown in table 1, Rogers's model describes five characteristics that impact a person's choice to adopt an innovation.\" (Richardson 2011:11)
\nUseful (note on p.11)
\n\n
\"Rogers (2003) claimed that if an innovation is perceived to be advantageous; is compatible with existing norms, beliefs, and past experiences; has a relatively low level of complexity; can be experimented with; and use of the innovation has observable results, including being able to see others using the innovation, then there will be an increased likelihood of adoption.\" (Richardson 2011:11)
\n\"staff development\" (Richardson 2011:13)
\n\"Pelgrum's (2001) list of the top-10 obstacles to implementing ICT innovations in less developed countries includes eight issues centered on the fact that end users could not practice using the ICT innovation and achieve observable results.\" (Richardson 2011:13)
\n\"Pelgrum listed the following as obstacles: insufficient number of computers, difficulty scheduling computer time, insufficient peripherals, not enough copies of software, insufficient teacher time, not enough simultaneous access to the Internet, not enough supervision staff, and a lack of technical assistance.\" (Richardson 2011:13)
\n\"First, ICT innovations in less developed nations rarely explicitly focus on the needs of the end user. This often causes dissonance in planning, implementation, and sustainability. Second, ICT in Education projects in less developed countries often lack sustained support. Thus, successes experienced early on tend to wane as time progresses. Third, the use of ICT in Education requires a conceptual and pedagogical shift for the end user. This shift is difficult to navigate. Projects in less developed countries thus tend to ignore the need to align educational outputs with ICT inputs. Fourth, sustaining the use of ICTs in education is a complex and difficult task.\" (Richardson 2011:14)
\n\"The five innovation characteristics (e.g., relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability, and trialability) offer a systematic approach through which to analyze and understand the adoption of a particular ICT innovation in a specific national context.\" (Richardson 2011:14)
\nToT (note on p.15)
\n\n
\"The ICT training was conducted using a cascading model where 28 master trainers were initially given 96 hours of training. After successfully undergoing training, the master trainers went into the field to train all teacher trainers using the same 96-hour training model.\" (Richardson 2011:15)
\n\"The open-ended survey asked teacher trainers to describe two critical incidences: an incident when they used the ICT skills successfully and an incident when\" (Richardson 2011:15)
\n\"they were not successful using the ICT skills. The survey also included demographic, behavioral, and attitudinal questions.\" (Richardson 2011:16)
\n\"The face-to-face interviews were conducted after initial analysis of the paper surveys was completed. The interviews were used to gain clarity as well as to follow up on findings of the survey data. The interview protocol was conceptually based on Rogers's (2003) model of the diffusion of innovations. Guided questions thus revolved around creating an understanding of the five innovation characteristics. For example, in understanding relative advantages, interviewees were asked “What advantages did you find in using the ICT skills you gained?”\" (Richardson 2011:16)
\n\"Results\" (Richardson 2011:16)
\n\"TABLE 3 Teacher Trainers by Decision Category Noting the Innovation Characteristic (%)\" (Richardson 2011:17)
\n\"Successes Experienced\" (Richardson 2011:17)
\n\"Relative Advantage Coupled with Compatibility\" (Richardson 2011:17)
\n\"Relative advantage and compatibility were innovation characteristics often discussed as having synergistic qualities\" (Richardson 2011:17)
\n\"Increasing one's professional stature with students was noted by a late adopter who said that “activities are presented nicely to students and they are impressed with the presentation”\" (Richardson 2011:18)
\nnot seen as complex (note on p.18)
\n\n
\"Complexity\" (Richardson 2011:18)
\n\"Observability\" (Richardson 2011:19)
\n\"Trialability\" (Richardson 2011:20)
\n\"Barriers to Adoption\" (Richardson 2011:20)
\n\"Barriers Associated with Relative Advantage\" (Richardson 2011:21)
\n\"Comments from late adopters, reinventors, and rejecters revolved around issues of repair, lack of time, and no incentive to use the skills to perform their job.\" (Richardson 2011:21)
\n\"lack of English and technical language skills\" (Richardson 2011:21)
\n\"language of technology, referring to both English and technical language, was often not compatible with end users' past experiences\" (Richardson 2011:21)
\n\"Barriers Associated with Complexity\" (Richardson 2011:22)
\nthis is probably the biggest barrier (note on p.22)
\n\n
\"Barriers Associated with Observability\" (Richardson 2011:22)
\n\"The lack of reliable electricity was reported to impact the ability of teacher trainers to practice using the skills, observe tangible results, and observe others using the skills. S\" (Richardson 2011:22)
\n\"Barriers Associated with Trialability\" (Richardson 2011:23)
\n\"Discussion\" (Richardson 2011:24)
\n\"Complexity was the innovation characteristic late adopters most often discussed.\" (Richardson 2011:24)
\naccess (note on p.25)
\n\n
\"Discontinue adopters and rejecters most often noted that trialability was a major barrier to adopting use of the ICT skills.\" (Richardson 2011:25)
\n\"It was found that eight overall barriers were reported to constrain teacher trainers' adoption of the ICT skills in the current study. First, many teacher trainers were unable to repair the computers.\" (Richardson 2011:25)
\n\"Second, for many teacher trainers, language barriers\" (Richardson 2011:25)
\n\"Third, the lack of reliable electricity made using the ICT skills difficult for some teacher trainers.\" (Richardson 2011:26)
\n\"Fourth, a lack of a sufficient number of computers\" (Richardson 2011:26)
\n\"Fifth, the lack of Internet access\" (Richardson 2011:26)
\n\"Sixth, across all decision groups, it was found that using the ICT skills was difficult.\" (Richardson 2011:27)
\n\"However, in the current study, it was found that Roger's innovation characteristics are rarely discussed in isolation. The innovation characteristics often overlap and are discussed as closely aligned factors that are often indistinguishable.\" (Richardson 2011:28)
\n\"By understanding that innovation characteristics link to and influence one another, we are better able to plan, prepare, and engage in sustainable ICT in Education projects in the less developed world.\" (Richardson 2011:28)
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\n\"Traditionally, technology training, for both preservice and inservice teachers, has focused on helping teachers overcome first-order barriers (e.g., acquiring technical skills needed to operate a computer)\" (Ertmer 1999:47)
\n\"In general, the more integrated one's technology use becomes, the more fundamental the required changes (Kerr, 1996; Sandholtz, Ringstaff, & Dwyer, 1997)\" (Ertmer 1999:47)
\n\"First-order changes \"adjust\" current practice, in an incremental fashion, making it more effective or efficient, while leaving underlying beliefs unchallenged (for example, using the computer, rather than a worksheet, for basic skills review). On the other hand, second-order changes confront fundamental beliefs about current practice, thus leading to new goals, structures, or roles (for example, electronically conversing with an author to explore the cultural and political context of a story rather than writing a book report summary).\" (Ertmer 1999:48)
\nWVO Quine. (note on p.48)
\n\n
\"Barriers to change are \"the extrinsic and intrinsic factors that affect a teacher's innovation implementation efforts\" (Brickner, p. xvii). Thus, first-order barriers to technology integration are described as being extrinsic to teachers and include lack of access to computers and software, insufficient time to plan instruction, and inadequate technical and administrative support. In contrast, second-order barriers are intrinsic to teachers and include beliefs about teaching, beliefs about computers, established classroom practices, and unwillingness to change. While many first-order barriers may be eliminated by securing additional resources and providing computer-skills training, confronting second-order barriers requires challenging one's belief systems and the institutionalized routines of one's practice.\" (Ertmer 1999:48)
\n\"first- (incremental, institutional) and second-order (fundamental, personal)\" (Ertmer 1999:48)
\n\"block-busting\" strategies\" (Ertmer 1999:49)
\nsuper important (note on p.49)
\n\n
\"teachers' visions may ultimately determine the level of integration they attain (Roblyer, 1993).\" (Ertmer 1999:49)
\n\"the emphasis in this paper is on what we do with technology rather than on the kinds of equipment with which we do it.\" (Ertmer 1999:50)
\n\"I adopt a vision of technology integration that is both curriculum-based and future-oriented; that is, one that emphasizes preparing students for the future that they will inherit.\" (Ertmer 1999:50)
\n\"In this view, technology adds value to the curriculum not by affecting quantitative changes (doing more of the same in less time) but by facilitating qualitative ones (accomplishing more authentic and complex goals).\" (Ertmer 1999:50)
\n\"Although technology can be used to achieve traditional goals (mastering math facts, increasing word recognition) more efficiently (Fisher, Wilmore, & Howell, 1994), researchers and educators are suggesting that it is more effectively applied to achieve 21st-century goals (Dede, 1998; National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 1997; President's Panel on Educational Technology, 1997). According to Means and Olson (1997) this includes \"promoting student learning through collaborative involvement in authentic, challenging, multidisciplinary tasks by providing realistic complex environments for student inquiry, furnishing information and tools to support investigation (collecting, analyzing, displaying, and communicating information), and linking classrooms for joint investigations\" (p. 9).\" (Ertmer 1999:50)
\n\"As indicated above, the term first-order barriers refers to those obstacles that are extrinsic to teachers. Typically, these barriers are described in terms of the types of resources (e.g., equipment, time, training, support) that are either missing or inadequately provided in teachers' implementation environments (Means & Olson, 1997).\" (Ertmer 1999:51)
\n\"elimination of first-order barriers allowed second-order barriers or issues to surface:\" (Ertmer 1999:51)
\n\"\"In many ways, the massive introduction of technology forced teachers back into a firstyear-teacher mode, starting all over again with issues of classroom management, discipline, role definition, and lesson development\" (p. xvi).\" (Ertmer 1999:52)
\n\"Barriers that interfere with or impede fundamental change are referred to as secondorder (Brickner, 1995). These barriers are typically rooted in teachers' underlying beliefs about teaching and learning and may not be immediately apparent to others or even to the teachers themselves (Kerr, 1996). Yet current literature suggests that second-order barriers are common among today's teachers (Hannafin & Savenye, 1993; Kerr, 1996; Riedl, 1995). Moreover, these barriers are often thought to cause more difficulties than first-order barriers (Dede, 1998; Fisher et al., 1996).\" (Ertmer 1999:52)
\n\"cultural incompatibility\". thus advice to focus on the young teachers (note on p.52)
\n\n
\"Kerr's comment alludes to many of the second-order barriers teachers may face when they begin implementing technology in meaningful ways. These barriers relate to teachers' beliefs about teacher-student roles as well as their traditional classroom practices including teaching methods, organizational and management styles, and assessment procedures. Add to this an unclear vision regarding what is expected of them and their students (Baker, Herman, & Gearhart, 1996), as well as a general uncertainty about the relevance of technology in their prescribed curricula (Ertmer et al., 1999), and teachers are likely to experience a severe case of \"cultural incompatibility.\"\" (Ertmer 1999:52)
\n\"Thus, one of the major stumbling blocks to achieving integration may be, as Sheingold (1991) pointed out, that \"teachers will have to confront squarely the difficult problem of creating a school environment that is fundamentally different from the one they themselves experienced\" (p. 23). As teacher educators then, our job becomes one of helping our preand inservice teachers figure\" (Ertmer 1999:52)
\n\"out exactly how to do that (and furthermore, to do so without typically having encountered these environments ourselves!)\" (Ertmer 1999:53)
\nAfrica has really addressed many first order integration problems, and is now focused on second order (note on p.53)
\n\n
\"second-order barriers may never be eliminated completely but rather that they will continue to ebb and flow throughout the evolutionary integration process (Becker, 1993). At some points, first-order barriers will be at the forefront; at other times, second-order barriers will present the more critical challenges.\" (Ertmer 1999:53)
\n\"Currently the relationship between firstand second-order barriers is not clearly understood. What once was regarded as a relatively simple relationship (e.g., if you eliminate first-order barriers, integration will follow; Fisher et al., 1996) appears much more complex than initially proposed. Many researchers have described how teachers' uses of the computer \"evolve\" as they gain experience (Hadley & Sheingold, 1993; Marcinkiewicz, 1993; Sandholtz et al., 1997; Willis, 1992), yet it is unclear how this evolution relates specifically to the presence or absence of either firstor second-order barriers. A\" (Ertmer 1999:53)
\nmakes me think of second order barriers encountered by the crisis mappers when trying to activvate new information flows in post haiti quake response. it was their breakthroughs on the first order barriers that set them up for such problems on the second order. Also, second order is beyond the eprsonal. It is cultural. it si the establishment (note on p.53)
\n\n
\"Do teachers at higher levels of use encounter relatively fewer firstand second-order barriers? In what ways are barriers that are encountered by teachers at higher levels of technology use similar or dissimilar to those encountered by teachers at lower levels of use? How do teachers' approaches to firstorder barriers differ based on the existence (or lack) of second-order barriers?\" (Ertmer 1999:53)
\n\"although the barriers are the same, the consequences may be different. As suggested above, relative weights assigned to first-order barriers may be related, at least in part, to teachers' underlying second-order barriers (Ertmer et al., 1999). For example, limited access may be assigned relatively high weight by teachers who are not convinced that technology is relevant to their curriculum (as illustrated by the secondgrade teacher with only one computer). Yet others, who consider technology central to the curriculum (as illustrated by the high-school science teacher), may assign relatively low weight, regarding limited access as an inconvenience, or a challenge, but not a deterrent.\" (Ertmer 1999:54)
\nCAS (note on p.54)
\n\n
\"These contrasting opinions suggest the possibility that the relationship between teaching beliefs and classroom technology use is interactive, with successive, iterative changes occurring in both (Dwyer, 1996; Griest, 1996).\" (Ertmer 1999:54)
\nimportant (note on p.54)
\n\n
\"In summary, it is generally acknowledged that first-order barriers can be significant obstacles to achieving technology integration, yet the relative strength of second-order barriers may reduce or magnify their effects (Ertmer et al., 1999, Miller & Olson, 1994).\" (Ertmer 1999:54)
\n\"STRATEGIES FOR ADDRESSING BARRIERS\" (Ertmer 1999:55)
\n\"DEVELOPING A VISION\" (Ertmer 1999:55)
\nthis is simple and useful (note on p.56)
\n\n
\"three main strategies for developing a vision--modeling, reflection, and collaboration-\" (Ertmer 1999:56)
\n\"IDENTIFYING CURRICULAR OPPORTUNITIES\" (Ertmer 1999:56)
\nthis is the reason for the design-based workshops. (note on p.56)
\n\n
\"Having articulated an overall vision for classroom technology use (e.g., use of authentic challenging, multidisciplinary tasks; promotion of active learning and collaborative work), the next step is to identify specific areas in the curriculum where technology can work. Until recently, this component has been neglected in technology training programs (Gilmore, 1995; Wetzel, 1993).\" (Ertmer 1999:56)
\ngoals for workshops
(note on p.57)
\n
\"Means and Olson (1997) listed three ways that teachers might implement a technology-enhanced curricula: (a) utilize an appropriate piece of software (e.g., Carmen SanDiego) within existing instruction, (b) adapt a comprehensive multimedia curriculum (e.g., Voyage of the Mimi) to achieve current instructional goals, or (c) design a curriculum unit around a theme or topic (e.g., ocean life, space exploration) using a variety of technology applications, generally with an emphasis on tool and communications software.\" (Ertmer 1999:57)
\n\"OBTAINING RESOURCES\" (Ertmer 1999:57)
\n\"1. Access.\" (Ertmer 1999:57)
\n\"2. Time.\" (Ertmer 1999:58)
\n\"3. Training.\" (Ertmer 1999:58)
\n\"It is currently recommended that technology training address both pedagogical and technological needs (Fisher et al., 1996), engaging participants in the same types of projects (and using the same types of\" (Ertmer 1999:58)
\n\"4. Support.\" (Ertmer 1999:58)
\n\"MANAGING RESOURCES AND CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES\" (Ertmer 1999:59)
\n\"ASSESSING STUDENT LEARNING\" (Ertmer 1999:60)
\n\"Learning processes and outcomes, enabled by technology, can be measured through the use of rubrics, electronic portfolios, processoriented feedback, as well as performance tasks requiring teams of students to solve authentic problems with new technologies. Students should also be required to engage in self-evaluation; that is, to establish learning goals at the start of a unit and to assess their progress throughout the learning process.\" (Ertmer 1999:60)
\nCAS perspective (note on p.60)
\n\n
\"explained, \"For teachers to implement any new instructional strategy, they must acquire new knowledge about it and then weave this together with the demands of the curriculum, classroom management, and existing instructional skills\" (p. 223). As subcogs in a dynamic system, all are integral to turning the gears of the school improvement process (Fullan, 1992).\" (Ertmer 1999:60)
\n\"teachers acquire the skills needed to use technology in ways that \"facilitate fundamental, qualitative changes in the nature of teaching and learning\" (President's Panel on Educational Technology, 1997, p. 33). To address these needs, significant changes in the professional preparation of educators are being recommended, including greater emphasis on professional growth, as opposed to program-technology adoption (Gilmore, 1995). According to EDC (1996), professional development should be directed toward growing human capacities. \"It is not training in the technology but training in how to leverage the technology to provide, increase, improve, and/or assess student learning\" (p. 8). Thus, rather than focusing on technology per se, professional development experiences might be more effectively linked to new visions for teaching and learning, made possible with technology, rather than the development of user proficiency in the operation of specific software and hardware (EDC, 1996).\" (Ertmer 1999:61)
\n\"\"Success in school change efforts is much more likely when problems are treated as natural, expected phenomena.... Successful schools do not have fewer problems than other schools--they just cope with them better\" (p. 26).\" (Ertmer 1999:61)
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