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            "note": "<p>*Revisi&oacute;n historiogr&aacute;fica sobre estudios andinos desde los 70 hasta los 90s centrado en Per&uacute; pero con referencias a otros pa&iacute;ses andinos. Para Glave, los 70s inauguran un nuevo per&iacute;odo en la historiograf&iacute;a andina por el auge de la historia econ&oacute;mica (desplazando los enfoques tradicionales/descriptivos de historia patria de carga ideol&oacute;gica hispanista, p.115) y su papel en reinterpretar fuentes existentes e identificar nuevas, centr&aacute;ndose en estudios monogr&aacute;ficos regionales y locales (pp.113-117). Un &aacute;rea hegem&oacute;nica durante los 70s es la historia agraria (centrada en las relaciones laborales, la hacienda, mercado de tierras y precios, p.117), donde adem&aacute;s figuran temas contempor&aacute;neos siguiendo una l&iacute;nea marxista (historia del movimiento campesino, revoluci&oacute;n, etc.). En los 80s se da un crecido inter&eacute;s por la historia regional (p.121), que a su vez abri&oacute; pas&oacute; al estudio de las comunidades (historia de mentalidades, mileranismo andino, p.122).</p>",
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            "note": "<p class=\"MsoNormal\">*Balance bibliogr&aacute;fico de obras publicadas los 70s y 80s sobre historia agraria Latinoamericana. Para el autor, la historiograf&iacute;a en AL se centr&oacute; en esta &eacute;poca principalmente en el tema de penetraci&oacute;n del capitalismo en el agro (ya sea como transformaci&oacute;n de relaciones pre-capitalistas &ndash;dependencia- o articulaci&oacute;n &ndash;Kay, et.al-) y en menor medida en procesos de consolidaci&oacute;n del estado-naci&oacute;n (pp.2-7). &nbsp;Temas en la historiograf&iacute;a asociados a estas l&iacute;neas incluyen: campesinado y pol&iacute;tica (p.13) y movimientos sociales (p.15).</p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;\">-Desarrollo Rural Integrado DRI (p.8-10)</span></p>",
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            "note": "<p class=\"MsoNormal\">*Reflexi&oacute;n historiogr&aacute;fica sobre los estudios agrarios a partir de las contribuciones a la revista <em>Peasant studies</em>, que fue editada por los autores entre 1973 y 2001 (cuando fundan <em>Agrarian Change</em>)</p>\n<p class=\"MsoNormal\">-Los autores se&ntilde;alan el esencialismo de los estudios campesinos entre el 73 y el 2000, reflejado en las contribuciones en la revista (p.6-7), as&iacute; como los diversos esfuerzos por cuestionar este esencialismo e insistir en el car&aacute;cter heterog&eacute;neo, din&aacute;mico y ambiguo del concepto (p.8, <strong>relacionar con Roseberry</strong> y con Morner en el caso de <strong>la Hacienda</strong>). La otra gran l&iacute;nea de investigaci&oacute;n durante este periodo, en relaci&oacute;n con la cuesti&oacute;n agraria cl&aacute;sica (Kautsky) es la relaci&oacute;n y el papel de la agricultura con el desarrollo capitalista: &ldquo;If there is a common current here, it is the analysis of the development of capitalist agriculture &ndash; or the development/underdevelopment of agriculture in peripheral capitalist society, to paraphrase Kautsky (1988) &ndash; combining theoretical with empirical investigation of its extraordinary &lsquo;substantive diversity&rsquo; (p.20). <span lang=\"EN-US\">This problematic <strong>includes how agrarian class structures, their contributions to general economic development, and the forms and effects of the politics they generate, shape and are shaped by state policies and practices</strong> (p.20). </span>Aqu&iacute; hay muchas contribuciones sobre AL, especialmente en torno a temas como la disoluci&oacute;n de la hacienda y otras formas de agricultura &lsquo;tradicional&rsquo; (p.20).</p>\n<p class=\"MsoNormal\"><strong><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Otros</span></strong></p>\n<p class=\"MsoNormal\">-Emergencia de los estudios de g&eacute;nero desde mediados de los 80s.</p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;\">-Emergencia de los estudios subalternos a mediados de los 70s (p.33)</span></p>",
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            "note": "<p class=\"MsoNormal\">*McMichael sostiene que la cuesti&oacute;n agraria siempre ha sido una interpretaci&oacute;n nacional &nbsp;(asociada a las din&aacute;micas de construcci&oacute;n de estado) <strong>de un proceso global (teniendo en cuenta la l&oacute;gica colonialista del mercado y actualmente el r&eacute;gime corporativo) o, en la l&iacute;nea de Roseberry, que la cuesti&oacute;n agraria debe abordarse localmente pero teniendo en cuenta el contexto global</strong>: &ldquo;the goal is to situate localism within changings fields of power, understood as global relations embedded within state practices&rdquo; (p.633). El autor traza esta relaci&oacute;n dial&eacute;ctica entre lo local-global a partir del proceso (s.XIX y XX) de cambio en los patrones de producci&oacute;n agr&iacute;cola y consumo (<strong>food regime</strong>): primero el desplazamiento de &lsquo;luxuries&rsquo; (pimienta, seda, etc) a mercanc&iacute;as &lsquo;tropicales&rsquo; (cat&eacute;, aceites vegetales, t&eacute;, az&uacute;car); luego la decadencia de estos al ser reemplazados en los pa&iacute;ses importadores por equivalentes producidos en los pa&iacute;ses &lsquo;temperados&rsquo; (p.636-7). Esta relocalizaci&oacute;n en la producci&oacute;n de mercanc&iacute;as agr&iacute;colas (de la periferia al centro, fomentada adem&aacute;s por las pol&iacute;ticas proteccionistas y subsidios a la producci&oacute;n del centro) tuvo como efecto central&nbsp; la transici&oacute;n de pa&iacute;ses &lsquo;tropicales&rsquo; de exportadores a importadores de grano (p.639). M&aacute;s recientemente, bajo la l&oacute;gica corporativa de la globalizaci&oacute;n, la crisis se ha profundizado en el sector agrario gracias a la flexibilizaci&oacute;n laboral en el campo, desplazamiento por nuevas tecnolog&iacute;as, etc. Lo clave para el autor es que este contexto de crisis ha hecho resurgir la cuesti&oacute;n agraria en la forma de movimientos de resistencia a las din&aacute;micas de globalizaci&oacute;n (p.648-49, eg. M&eacute;xico y los zapatistas) y abogando por temas como seguridad alimentaria, agricultura sostenible, derechos sobre la tierra (p.654).</p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;\">-La l&oacute;gica pol&iacute;tica de la globalizaci&oacute;n (p.646).</span></p>",
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            "note": "<p class=\"MsoNormal\">*Revisi&oacute;n historiogr&aacute;fica de la cuesti&oacute;n agraria desde Marx hasta los debates contempor&aacute;neos con el objetivo de explorar cu&aacute;l ha sido la transformaci&oacute;n del campesinado en el contexto del capitalismo contempor&aacute;neo (p.179). M&aacute;s espec&iacute;ficamente, el art&iacute;culo busca cuestionar la hip&oacute;tesis sobre la desaparici&oacute;n del campesinado al sostener que la producci&oacute;n de peque&ntilde;a escala (campesina) todav&iacute;a juega un rol importante en la acumulaci&oacute;n de capital tanto al interior de los estados como a nivel global, aunque tambi&eacute;n es evidente el desplazamiento y pauperizaci&oacute;n de la poblaci&oacute;n campesina en muchos contextos&nbsp; (p.180).</p>\n<p class=\"MsoNormal\">Seg&uacute;n los autores, la idea com&uacute;n de que para Marx el campesinado pre-capitalista era un impedimento para el completo desarrollo del capitalismo no es del todo acertada (p.181), especialmente en el sentido que este consider&oacute; que las maneras de transici&oacute;n hacia el capitalismo habr&iacute;a de producir &lsquo;formas h&iacute;bridas&rsquo; (especialmente &lsquo;diferenciaci&oacute;n campesina&rsquo;<strong>, p.184</strong>) dependiendo del contexto geogr&aacute;fico e hist&oacute;rico (p.182): &ldquo;everything depends upon the historical context in which it is located&rdquo; (p.184). Este argumento est&aacute; presente tambi&eacute;n en Lenin y Kautsky, quienes vieron la transformaci&oacute;n del campesinado como efecto del uso expandido de maquinaria en el campo y su consecuente monetizaci&oacute;n de las relaciones de producci&oacute;n; esto a su vez produjo aumento en el trabajo asalariado tanto para la industria (proletarizaci&oacute;n) como los &ldquo;accumulating peasants&rdquo;&nbsp; (p.187); es decir, que tambi&eacute;n identificaron <strong>un proceso de diferenciaci&oacute;n</strong> (p.188): &ldquo;The variant tendencies of recombinant agrarian capital meant that, for Kautsky, there were no inevitable &lsquo;laws&rsquo; of agrarian development: capitalism does not impose path-dependence on agriculture&rdquo; (p.188).</p>\n<p class=\"MsoNormal\">-Mecanismos de transformaci&oacute;n campesina en Kautsky y Lenin (p.189-192)</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p class=\"MsoNormal\">-Proceso de colectivizaci&oacute;n en Rusia o el concepto de &ldquo;primitive socialist accumulation&rdquo; (p.192-93)&nbsp;</p>",
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            "note": "<p><span style=\"font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;\">*Art&iacute;culo-ponencia cuyo objetivo es proponer un <strong>enfoque territorial </strong>(centrado en la escalas global-nacional-local y sus relaciones) dentro de la sociolog&iacute;a rural que supere la dicotom&iacute;a entre los estudios enfocados en &ldquo;lo rural&rdquo; vs. aquellos enfocados a &ldquo;las ciudades&rdquo; (p.39), dicotom&iacute;a que es actualmente insostenible (p.41), as&iacute; como la tendencia a los an&aacute;lisis <strong>ahist&oacute;ricos. </strong>En esa l&iacute;nea, el enfoque propuesto sugiere tres elementos: la <strong>teorizaci&oacute;n de las transiciones</strong> (procesos de cambio hist&oacute;rico), <strong>teorizaci&oacute;n de la agencia</strong> (papel de los actores en los procesos) y <strong>teorizaci&oacute;n del espacio</strong>&nbsp; o &ldquo;contextualizaci&oacute;n territorial&rdquo;, p.42, 54). Un corolario de este enfoque es que debido a que los tres elementos s&oacute;lo pueden abarcarse desde contextos espaciales-temporales espec&iacute;ficos, &ldquo;no existe una ruralidad, sino m&uacute;ltiples&rdquo; (p.55, 57-8).</span></p>",
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            "note": "<p class=\"MsoNormal\">*Genealog&iacute;a de la aplicaci&oacute;n del concepto de metabolismo por parte de las ciencias sociales y naturales desde 1960 hasta 1970. El objetivo del art&iacute;culo es explorar los usos tempranos (pioneros) del concepto de metabolismo (en su doble definici&oacute;n desde la biolog&iacute;a y ecolog&iacute;a, definici&oacute;n, p.62) por parte de la sociolog&iacute;a, la antropolog&iacute;a cultural y la geograf&iacute;a social. De acuerdo con Fischer, fueron Marx y Engels los primeros que aplicaron el t&eacute;rmino a las ciencias sociales, partiendo de materialistas fisiol&oacute;gicos como Molseschott. <span lang=\"EN-US\">&ldquo;Marx and Engels did not use this notion only in a metaphorical sense: they meant to imply a material exchange relation between man and nature, a mutual interdependence beyond the widespread simple idea of man &ldquo;utilizing nature.&rdquo; The notion points to a fundamental material interrelatedness on an anthropological level, <strong>but it is not used as a tool to analyze capitalist society. In their writings there exists no such idea as the accumulation of capital having to do with the appropriation of the accumulated &ldquo;wealth&rdquo; of nature (e.g., fossil fuels); appropriation as a basis for capital accumulation is always and only appropriation</strong>&rdquo; (p.649, revisar con Foster). </span>Paralelamente, la autora habla de otros autores contempor&aacute;neos a Marx que&nbsp; (Spencer, Geddes) que llevan a cabo lecturas metab&oacute;licas (p.65).</p>\n<p class=\"MsoNormal\">Sin embargo, la posterior restricci&oacute;n de la aplicaci&oacute;n del concepto de metabolismo est&aacute; asociada la divisi&oacute;n epistemol&oacute;gica sociedad-naturaleza, principalmente en la sociolog&iacute;a. En 1860 esta divisi&oacute;n no era tan marcada y el concepto est&aacute; presente en&nbsp; la teor&iacute;a social cl&aacute;sica (ej. Marxismo). Al profundizarse esta divisi&oacute;n, el concepto queda restringido principalmente a la biolog&iacute;a y ecolog&iacute;a, hasta fines de los 1960s, cuando el auge del tema ambiental genera un nuevo inter&eacute;s (p.62, ver tambi&eacute;n p<strong>.65-66</strong>). Sin embargo, antes del auge del t&eacute;rmino, Fischer identifica lecturas &nbsp;metab&oacute;licas en la antropolog&iacute;a cultural y la geograf&iacute;a social (p.66-69).</p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;\">Finalmente, Fischer aborda el auge del concepto desde fines de los 60s, asociado a la emergencia de las preocupaciones ambientales de sociedades industriales (p.70ss).</span></p>",
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            "note": "<p class=\"MsoNormal\">*El autor sostiene que la <strong>agroecolog&iacute;a</strong> ofrece la posibilidad de generar un nuevo paradigma para re-interpretar la historia agraria, la cual ha sido sujeta a relatos que no logran desde hace tiempo captar las causas y proponer soluciones a la crisis agraria actual (p.9-10). B&aacute;sicamente se trata: <strong>1</strong>. de un acercamiento sist&eacute;mico e interdisciplinar (entre historia y ecolog&iacute;a) la realidad agraria que rompe la dicotom&iacute;a naturaleza-sociedad y &ldquo;se asienta sobre el principio de <strong>coevoluci&oacute;n</strong> de los sistemas sociales y ecol&oacute;gicos&rdquo; (p.10-11); <strong>2</strong>. De un enfoque que se aleja de la idea de dominaci&oacute;n sobre la naturaleza como principio del progreso y se centra en la <strong>sostenibilidad </strong>(p.13), basada en la transformaci&oacute;n de agricultura industrial a org&aacute;nica, la cual &ldquo;aspira a volver a flujos lo m&aacute;s circulares posible de energ&iacute;a y de materiales&rdquo; (p.15).</p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;\">-Relaci&oacute;n entre agricultura org&aacute;nica y coste territorial o el territorio necesario (&aacute;rea) para desarrollar ciclos circulares de energ&iacute;a y no depender as&iacute; de fuentes externas (p.17-18)</span></p>",
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            "note": "<p class=\"MsoNormal\">*Lectura de las luchas y movimientos campesinos desde el neo-narodismo ecol&oacute;gico, apoyado en los an&aacute;lisis de flujos de energ&iacute;a y de materiales a la agricultura (p.138). Alier define estos movimientos as&iacute;: &ldquo;Son movimientos ecologistas que tratan de sacar los recursos naturales del sistema de mercado generalizado, de la valoracion crematistica, de la racionalidad mercantil&rdquo; (p.139, <strong>ver p.161</strong>), y se enfoca en el <strong>casos como Cuba, Bolivia y Per&uacute;, claves para entender la noci&oacute;n de intercambio ecol&oacute;gico desigual y su relaci&oacute;n con el metabolismo social</strong>. En el primer caso, Alier afirma que &ldquo;Cuba ha sido en la mayor parte de su historia un pa&iacute;s exportador neto de energia, y a cambio de que? Es un claro ejemplo de presi&oacute;n de la producci&oacute;n sobre los recursos causada por la especializaci&oacute;n en productos de exportaci&oacute;n mal pagados&hellip;&rdquo; (p.142). Pero el autor se centra en el caso peruano del guano para poner un claro ejemplo de desarrollo ecol&oacute;gico desigual&nbsp; (p.145ss)</p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;\">Otro elemento clave en relaci&oacute;n a la cuesti&oacute;n agraria es <strong>la conexi&oacute;n entre metabolismo y teor&iacute;a de la dependencia</strong>: &ldquo;Pero el&nbsp; enfoque socio-ecologico lleva en general a una de la staple theory of growth (que explica el crecimiento econ&oacute;mico de pa&iacute;ses ex-coloniales por la exportaci&oacute;n de materias primas y alimentos); por el contrario, da nueva vigencia a la teor&iacute;a del subdesarrollo como fruto de la dependencia. Esa dependencia esta expresada no solamente en la infravaloraci&oacute;n de la fuerza de trabajo proporcionada por los pobres del mundo, ni <strong>tampoco meramente en el deterioro de la relaci&oacute;n de intercambio en t&eacute;rminos de precios, sino en un intercambio desigual (medible en \"tiempo de production\") entre \"productos\" extra&iacute;dos, de imposible o larga reposici&oacute;n, y productos de r&aacute;pida fabricaci&oacute;n</strong>. El ecologismo popular igualitarista es m&aacute;s propio del sur que del norte precisamente porque en el sur las luchas anticapitalistas locales son muchas veces, aun sin saberlo sus actores, luchas ecologistas&rdquo; (pp.143-4).</span></p>",
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