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- DISCONNECTED: A STUDY OF MOBILE TELEPHONE REJECTION
- ABSTRACT
- (Technology) Behavior Factors
- Affective/Cognitive Factors
- Ease of use. The substantial literature chronicling how people come to accept and use new technology is dominated by the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989) and TAM-derivative models. TAM argues that technology adoption is driven by attitude toward the innovation – in particular with respect to its ease of use and usefulness. While there has been considerable debate about the relative salience of these two variables (Agarwal, et al., 1998), they have been fairly ubiquitous in technology acceptance research studies since TAM was introduced in 1986 (Matheison, 1991) including more complex models incorporating additional IT predictors (Taylor and Todd, 1995). Of the two variables, Davis argued that while ease of use is clearly significant, usefulness is even more important in determining acceptance. Neither, however, has been seen to be pointedly relevant in explaining technology rejection which Davis nominates as a meaningful area for future study. Thus we included these constructs in our model, conjecturing:
- Social norm. Social norm refers to the extent to which important social referent groups influence an individual’s decision to engage in a given behavior. (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) The salience of social norm has been demonstrated over the decades in numerous studies involving a wide variety of behaviors. (Bandura,1991: Wood and Bandura,1989). The role of social norm in technology acceptance, however, has been somewhat unclear. Initially, Davis et al. (1989) did not consider it for inclusion in TAM since it was the least understood aspect of the theory of reasoned action. However, other models of technology acceptance have included various aspects of social influence (see Agarwal and Prasad, 1998; Moore and Benbasat, 1991; Thompson et al., 1991; Venkatesh et al., 2003). Venkatesh and Brown (2001), for example, found that the role of social influence was significant in predicting acceptance of personal computers in the home. More generally, research has suggested that the views of others influence technology adoption more profoundly when the adopter lacks knowledge, experience and confidence in making an independent decision. (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000; Venkatesh and Morris, 2000; Venkatesh et al., 2003). To demonstrate the effects on social norm on rejection versus adoption, we hypothesized:
- Preference of communications. Humans, characterized by their innate tendency to communicate with one another, (Deacon, 1997) exhibit a broad range of communication preferences. These preferences have been seen as shaped both by individual and contextual factors.
- Socio-Economic Factors
- Operationalization of Constructs
- Sample
- Data Collection
- Data Screening
- Data were first screened for missing data, outliers and multicollinearity. Mahalanobis distance was used to identify and eliminate outliers. About fourteen outliers were identified and removed from further analysis. Typically, multicollinearity in logistic regression models is a result of strong correlations between independent variables. To determine if multicollinearity was a problem, the correlations between independent variables were examined and no variables
- Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) of Constructs
- Preference of communication. Table A2 to A4, referred to in the Appendix; show the results of the factor analysis for each category of preference of communication (synchronous telephone preference, scheduling communications preference, communication collaboration preference and availability preference). As shown in Table A2 in the Appendix, the factor analysis for synchronous telephone preference resulted in two factors that together explained about 81.23% of the variance. One item was removed from analysis. Both reliability coefficients for the scales were above the suggested .70 threshold (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Each factor was named based on the items that loaded onto them, accordingly, factor 1 defines a “distal” communication preference and factor 2 is a preference for “proximal” communication.
- Technology usage information. A ten-item scale measured frequency of use of various technologies (such as desktop, laptop, and tablet PCs, PDAs, high speed connectivity, iPods and MP3 players and digital and video cameras). As seen in Table A7, in the Appendix, a factor analysis of the items resulted in six factors that explained 82.07% of the variance. Although frequency of use for an iPod cross loaded on two factors, the item was kept in for the purpose of averaging similar items
- T-test Analysis
- Before developing the regression model which aggregated survey items into categories, we first explored differences between rejecters and adopters with regard to each study characteristic. As seen in Table 4, T-tests (with unequal variances) comparing the means of both groups on each item demonstrated a number of significant differences. Although the assumptions for using the T-test were met, because of the grossly unequal sample sizes we also conducted the Mann-Whitney non-parametric test for independent samples. This test is an alternative to the independent group t-test, when the assumption of normality or equality of variance is not met. As seen in Table 4, the Z-test results from the Mann Whitney test were comparable to the independent t-tests.
- Social norm. Adopters appear to be significantly more influenced than rejecters by what they believe are the behaviors that friends, colleagues and family members would recommend for them with regard to mobile phone usage. In each case adopters express more strongly than rejecters the belief that important social referent groups want them to use a mobile phone. In addition, adopters express more strongly the importance of doing what these groups want them to do. The difference between means, although significant in all three cases, was most extreme with respect to the influence of family. The least influence was observed for friends. As demonstrated in Table 4, the two questions (opinions and influence of opinions) when multiplied to effect a social norm score, remained significant for all three social referent groups.
- Technology usage. Adopters are significantly more likely to use various technological devices such as iPods, MPG players, digital cameras, laptops, high speed connectivity and PDAs than are rejecters with one exception: rejecters report using a desktop computer significantly more than adopters. Correspondingly, the difference between means of rejecters and adopters was most extreme regarding usage of a laptop notebook.
- Preference of communication. Certain items with respect to preference of communication are significantly higher for adopters than for rejecters. All five items measuring communication collaboration preference, for example, were significant. Adopters expressed stronger beliefs than did rejecters that the preferable way to use a mobile phone is to keep it switched on and close at hand to make calls at any time, demonstrated more amenability to being interrupted to take mobile phone calls and espoused greater desire to communicate with multiple people at the same time.
- Ease of use. Rejecters and adopters reported significant differences in attitudes about the learning effort required to operate a mobile phone. Adopters expressed a higher extent of agreement about a mobile phone being cumbersome, rigid and inflexible and frustrating or difficult to use than did rejecters.
- Negative consequence. Corroborating the findings of earlier qualitative research among non-users of mobile phones, rejecters in the present study were significantly higher in agreement than were adopters that mobile phone usage encourages unnecessary communications, causes people to indulge in meaningless conversation , distracts from ones awareness of surroundings and distracts people when driving.
- Necessity. The difference between means for items related to the necessity of using a mobile phone and for items relating to cost and safety issues (discussed below) were especially wide.
- Logistical Regression
- Binary logistic regression. The goal of conducting binary logistic regression for this analysis was to find answers to research questions formulated in the hypothesis. Can the status of whether someone currently uses a mobile telephone (yes/user versus no/rejecter) be correctly predicted from one’s expected learning effort, preference of communication, social norm, negative consequences, Attitudes about use, instance of usage, usage of technology, and demographic characteristics? If the use of mobile phone status can be predicted correctly, which “drivers” are central in the prediction of that status and does the inclusion of a particular driver increase (or decrease) the probability of the specific outcome? How good is the model at classifying respondents? Specifically, how many who reported currently using a mobile phone are correctly classified, and how many who reported they do not currently use a mobile phone are correctly classified by the model?
- Results of hypothesis test. As shown in previous tables, the overall percentage of cases accurately predicted by the significant characteristics in the model is 94%. This is an increase of 7.3% from the null model (86.7%). The null model represents the status quo based on the declaration of participants in the study as to whether they do or do not use mobile telephony (rejecters 209 /1364 users). This model is better at predicting usage (98%). It is not as effective at predicting rejection (68%). To our surprise, we found a higher discrepancy than anticipated in predicting adopters versus rejecters. However, we now have a robust tool in predicting rejection, something which to our knowledge has not been available to date. The Nagelkekre R-square was quite high (0.65), implying that the significant characteristics are useful predictors.
- (Technology) Behavior Factors
- Degree of email accessibility for work/school purposes appears to predict rejection/non-rejection. The odds that a person is an adopter increase by 15% over that of a rejecter for every one unit increase in 24-7 email accessibility. As a person’s reported willingness to use email to communicate with work/school colleagues decreases, the more likely he/she is to embrace mobile telephony.
- The model statistics and hypotheses supported are summarized in Table 10 below:
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