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That more music at lower cost became available to the public just as copyright protections were being weakened by file-sharing suggests that the need for even stronger protection is open to question, he says.

\n

That kind of argument won't make the charts with the music recording industry, which has shown little willingness to give up its fight to rein in illegal filesharing. But some in the industry are showing interest in the idea of making file-sharing legal.

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By making music cheap and easy to access - and by offering other consumer-friendly add-ons, such as lyrics and online music communities - these providers may be showing the way on how to put the clamps on infringing file-sharing, many experts believe.

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But the recording companies did not limit their copyright suits to makers and distributors of file-sharing software. Starting in 2003, the labels began suing thousands of individuals who allegedly downloaded and shared copyrighted songs without authorization. Initially, this widely publicized litigation campaign drove down the frequency of file-sharing. But within months the number of file-sharers surpassed pre-lawsuit levels and kept climbing.

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The third technique of neutralization, the denial of victim, extended this concept. Individuals who applied this technique accepted that there was a victim to the crime, but believed that the injury was justified because the victim was deserving of punishment or retaliation.

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The second technique was termed the denial of injury, and related to a belief that there was no injury or harm caused to the person who was affected by the delinquent behavior. Further, if there was any harm then the harm was negated by the fact that the victim could afford the injury, and was therefore not an injury in the truest sense.

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The fourth technique of neutralization was termed the condemnation of the condemners. Here, the individual justified their behavior on the basis that those who were victimized were not real victims because they were hypocrites, or that the victims would have engaged in the same activities if they were provided the opportunity.

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The final technique of neutralization was termed the appeal to higher loyalties. This technique of neutralization was applied when an individual recognized that perhaps an act was inappropriate but justified the behavior on the grounds that their immediate social group needed their behavior at the time (Sykes & Matza, 1957).

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\n

The challenge for the schools lies in the fact that they want to avoid monitoring students' Internet use, especially at large state institutions with tens of thousands of students. While school officials largely say they are reluctant to keep tabs on exactly what students are doing with their computers, some say they think monitoring is inevitable. Dr. Michael Zastrocky, a former college administrator and now an analyst at research firm Gartner, estimates that 80 percent of schools that "don't monitor or don't get involved" will face an episode of negative publicity or legal action within five years. Meanwhile, monitoring software is improving, and universities soon may run out of excuses for not using it.

\n
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\n

Still, those who say copyright is dead probably are overstating the case. While the application of copyright may change, the principles behind it likely won't. At the same time, lawyers who like easy, predictable answers may be better off doing real estate closings or preparing simple wills instead of venturing into the 21st century world of digitized intellectual property.

\n
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Users connected directly with one another, and the companies supplying this 'peer-to-peer, or P2P, software could not monitor or control what files users were sharing. [...] there was no infringement, whether vicarious or contributory, under the Napster standard.", "publicationTitle": "ABA Journal", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "Jun 2010", "volume": "96", "issue": "6", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "55, 7 PGS.", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://proquest.umi.com.mutex.gmu.edu/pqdweb?index=0&did=2060383411&SrchMode=1&sid=18&Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1284432809&clientId=31810", "accessDate": "2010-09-14T02:57:15Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-09-14T03:20:38Z", "dateModified": "2010-09-14T03:20:38Z" } }, { "key": "N4Z5TM7H", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 25555, "name": "dietz_references", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dietz_references", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/25555/items/N4Z5TM7H", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dietz_references/items/N4Z5TM7H", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 341627, "username": "cdietz", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/cdietz", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Moore and McMullen", "parsedDate": "2009-06", "numChildren": 5 }, "data": { "key": "N4Z5TM7H", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Neutralizations and Rationalizations of Digital Piracy: A Qualitative Analysis of University Students", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Robert", "lastName": "Moore" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Elizabeth", "lastName": "McMullen" } ], "abstractNote": "The current study examined the use of neutralization techniques by university students who shared copyrighted files through the user of peer-to-peer file sharing programs. Qualitative interviews were conducted with forty-four university students in an attempt to determine whether neutralization techniques were employed by file sharers. The results indicated that multiple neutralizations were employed by a small number of participants. However, each participant indicated support for one of six neutralization techniques. Explanations of how these findings impact the movie and music industry's response to digital piracy are discussed, as is the need for further research on neutralization theory and file sharing", "publicationTitle": "International Journal of Cyber Criminology", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "Jan - June 2009", "volume": "3", "issue": "1", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "441, 11 pgs.", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://proquest.umi.com.mutex.gmu.edu/pqdweb?index=2&did=1988429621&SrchMode=1&sid=18&Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1284433303&clientId=31810", "accessDate": "2010-09-14T03:04:45Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-09-14T03:20:38Z", "dateModified": "2010-09-14T03:20:38Z" } }, { "key": "WUJDSDRI", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 25555, "name": "dietz_references", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dietz_references", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/25555/items/WUJDSDRI", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dietz_references/items/WUJDSDRI", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 341627, "username": "cdietz", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/cdietz", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Roach", "parsedDate": "2003-01-02", "numChildren": 2 }, "data": { "key": "WUJDSDRI", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Internet forces schools to contend with copyright, speech issues", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Ronald", "lastName": "Roach" } ], "abstractNote": "As universities' computer network capacities become deluged by file-sharing students, so too have school presidents' offices been hit by complaints from the entertainment industry. Citing an estimated 2.6 billion music and video files shared illegally each month on college campuses, four entertainment industry groups recently sent a joint letter to more than 2,000 university presidents urging them to crack down on copyright infringement.", "publicationTitle": "Black Issues in Higher Education", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "Jan. 2, 2003", "volume": "19", "issue": "23", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "34, 1 pg", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://proquest.umi.com.mutex.gmu.edu/pqdweb?index=6&did=277260371&SrchMode=1&sid=18&Fmt=4&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1284433303&clientId=31810", "accessDate": "2010-09-14T03:10:06Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-09-14T03:20:38Z", "dateModified": "2010-09-14T03:20:38Z" } }, { "key": "C8VVFJR3", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 25555, "name": "dietz_references", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dietz_references", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/25555/items/C8VVFJR3", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dietz_references/items/C8VVFJR3", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 341627, "username": "cdietz", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/cdietz", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Gibeaut", "numChildren": 2 }, "data": { "key": "C8VVFJR3", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Facing the music", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "John", "lastName": "Gibeaut" } ], "abstractNote": "The Napster case and others herald the beginning of a technological rebellion that may alter traditional concepts of copyright law. The court fight between music-swapping service Napster and the recording industry is discussed.", "publicationTitle": "ABA Journal", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "", "volume": "86", "issue": "36, 7 pgs", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://proquest.umi.com.mutex.gmu.edu/pqdweb?index=11&did=61996578&SrchMode=1&sid=18&Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1284433959&clientId=31810", "accessDate": "2010-09-14T03:12:51Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-09-14T03:20:38Z", "dateModified": "2010-09-14T03:20:38Z" } }, { "key": "IVDCMPV3", "version": 1, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 25555, "name": "dietz_references", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dietz_references", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/25555/items/IVDCMPV3", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dietz_references/items/IVDCMPV3", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 341627, "username": "cdietz", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/cdietz", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "du Plessis", "parsedDate": "2008-11", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "IVDCMPV3", "version": 1, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "DIGITAL PIRACY: filesharing in the corporate environment", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "David", "lastName": "du Plessis" } ], "abstractNote": "In terms of the South African Copyright Act, as well as the relevant legislation in virtually every country, it is unlawful to copy or distribute someone else's copyright material on the Internet without their permission. Record companies and artists have a direct financial concern when theft of their copyright works is facilitated over the networks of corporate organizations. Quite apart from the legal risks that a company exposes itself to by allowing the unauthorized copying of copyright material by its employees, it also runs serious risks to its company data, confidentiality and IT security. There are a number of steps that companies can take to manage the risks associated with unauthorized downloading: 1. Set a company policy. 2. Take copyright inventories. 3. Delete unauthorized material. 4. Control file-sharing. 5. Set firewall rules. 6. Control wireless access. 7. Watch traffic levels. 8. Maintain virus protection. 9. Maintain Spyware protection. 10. Designate a compliance officer.", "publicationTitle": "Accountancy SA", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "Nov. 2008", "volume": "", "issue": "Nov. 2008", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "2", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "http://proquest.umi.com.mutex.gmu.edu/pqdweb?index=4&did=1598549381&SrchMode=1&sid=18&Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1284432809&clientId=31810", "accessDate": "2010-09-14T02:53:34Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-09-14T03:20:38Z", "dateModified": "2010-09-14T03:20:38Z" } } ]