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Zinkham begins with the argument that photographs provide rich documentary evidence, both by illustrating history and as primary source materials; for instance, “considering why photographs were created and for whom can shed new light on research topics” (119).  However, due to the vast quantity of historical photographs that exist in repositories, “finding images for a specific research project can be a challenge” (120).  Therefore, Zinkham organizes her chapter as a tutorial, designed to walk researchers through a sequence of steps to find photographs; she then concludes with techniques and exercises for reading and using those images.

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In her first section, “Finding Photograph Sources,” Zinkham argues that photographs—while increasingly available digitally—are still “more likely than books or manuscripts to be uncataloged, undercataloged, or represented only in card catalogs and browsing files” (120). Therefore, she argues that the researcher interested in photographic evidence must visit relevant archives in person. She urges researchers to begin with “traditional picture reference works” such as the ALA Portrait Index and Chronicle of America, and then to move to general web searches and subscription databases.

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Within the archives themselves, Zinkham notes that there are often discrete access tools for images (123). She suggests using collection guides and special access tools to determine the search phrases most likely to yield useful results in online databases.  By reading both print and online guides and then visiting the archives themselves, Zinkham argues, researchers can “learn how written descriptions of photographs translate into the different types of images available at archives” (123).

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Next, Zinkham discusses “General Picture Research Techniques.” This includes a list of basic research questions individuals should ask when presented with any photographic image. These questions pertain to how the photograph itself will be used and discussed within the contemporary research project, what background information is needed to put the image in context, etc. Third, Zinkham turns to the process of “reading” the image itself.  Here, she urges researchers to spend “a full two minutes” looking at one photograph. Then she outlines steps for “scrutinizing” the photograph, including “captur[ing] a first impression,” writing “a narrative caption,” and finalizing that caption (129). Each step is further broken down into a subset of activities designed to help researchers identify and question their assumptions about the information captured in an image.

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Finally, Zinkham notes that the researcher will also need to gather contextual evidence to support his or her reading of a photograph. This involves making a list of things in the photograph that could be checked against reference sources, looking at an image’s placement within a collection, and researching any information about the photographer, date, place, individuals, etc. related to the image (131).  Zinkham’s chapter outlines a clear and practical approach to using visual archives. Her chapter could easily be translated into an assignment that asks students to critically evaluate materials in a collection of photographs, or determine the relationship between a photograph and other material types in an archival collection. Thus, this chapter is useful as both a student reading and for instructors researching potential assignment designs.

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Warnick begins by restating the belief that archives are “highly mediated constructions of the past” (91).  His focus, however, is not on how archives construct particular versions of the past, but rather on providing researchers with a roadmap for locating archival materials. Warnick sets out to examine “several types of finding aids available to scholars interested in recovering material traces of writing, rhetoric, curricula, and pedagogy” (92). These include: electronic, print, and local finding aids, online databases, print bibliographies and directories, and catalogs specific to particular archival collections.

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Warnick’s article is problematic, however, in that he redefines terminology with specific meaning for archival professionals. Warnick writes that “within the professional archivist community, the term finding aid refers specifically to a guide or index listing the materials held in a particular archival collection,” but for his purposes “broaden[s] the term to include general archives directories” and other materials (92). For the beginning researcher, this alteration could become confusing when interacting with archivists. Still, the article does helpfully identify a number of digital and print bibliographic resources for locating archival material within the disciplines of rhetoric and composition.

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Tirabassi walks the reader through her research process during her dissertation work at the University of New Hampshire Archives. She begins by telling the reader: “In some ways, [her] research process was random, as [she] sifted through folders that might or might not yield [useful] information” (169).  This emphasis on the difference between selecting secondary sources one knows will be useful and digging through archival materials for resources is again an important distinction for the beginning researcher.  Tirabassi, as a new researcher herself, developed an ordered list of boxes and folders to explore, and then proceeded through those in a methodical fashion. Finding useful information, however, was more haphazard, and she notes that while she read about archival methodology before beginning, it was entering the archives themselves that “shaped [her] approach most significantly” (170). The remainder of her chapter is devoted to outlining the four principles of archival research she developed during her own research experience.

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Tirabassi’s four principles include: 1) the principle of selectivity (“the researcher’s understanding of how archivists select and omit artifacts”); 2) the principle of cross-referencing (“searching across documents for contextual traces” of other documents”); 3) the principle of categorization (developing a list of key words and finding aids); 4) the principle of closure (“understanding that there are inherent gaps in archival records” and that an archive cannot be searched exhaustively”) (171-172). The most useful new pragmatic aspect of archival research that Tirabassi introduces is her fourth principle. Here, she tells researchers: “Finding the ending point or knowing when to make an exit is an essential part of archival research” (172). As Tirabassi points out, there will always be other questions, other documents, and other gaps in the research that could be filled if the appropriate document existed, somewhere. Part of archival research is determining what artifacts are essential and when a critical mass of research has been reached.

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Like many others, Tirabassi also stresses that archival researchers must be open to discovery: “A challenge of archival research is learning to negotiate the seeming idiosyncratic nature of an unfamiliar … archive in pursuit of answers to our questions while remaining open to new directions that the artifacts might take us. Such pursuits require a great deal of time” (178). Her emphasis on the mutable and painstaking nature of archival research, combined with her four principles, provide instructors with another useful reading for students being introduced to archival research and the ways in which it differs from secondary source research.

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Like many others in the volume Working in the Archives, Ritter describes the process of being new to archival research; for Ritter, however, she was interested in looking at how university archives at institutions such as Yale preserve a male tradition of writing and of education. She notes that she felt isolated and out of place, first as a composition scholar amongst mostly historians and literary researchers. In fact, her research only began to progress when she moved beyond that isolation and interacted with the director of the Yale archives. Ritter argues that researchers need “an interpreter, an interloper who lives intimately on the inside of the institution but away from its academically driven biases and political locations” (184). If we translate Ritter’s argument for the individual researcher to the classroom, her article supports the sense that students need an embedded librarian or archivist in their archives-based courses: someone to help them locate, understand, and access a new type of research as they learn to ask new research questions.

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Ritter also notes that her research required her to use types of documents she had not previously considered: memos, annual reports, administrative documents, sample student papers, sample placement exams, and student articles (185-186). Here, Ritter corroborates the sense conveyed in many other articles in the volume: archival research differs from secondary source research in many ways, including the very types of documents available for research use.

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Ritter then moves into a more detailed discussion of the gendered nature of early university archives, in which letters were often dictated to women who were present in the university community as secretaries, but never students. This discussion allows Ritter to discuss the ways in which her own personal identity as a reader “a woman, for whom these documents, memos, curricular plans, were not written and by whom they were never supposed to be seen” affected her research (189).  Overall, Ritter’s article provides a useful example of the ways in which different communities are included or excluded from archival production, as well as the ways communities are then represented within archival documents by records creators. Again, like others in this volume, Ritter argues clearly and convincingly that researchers need to be aware not only of their own biases and perspectives, but also of the biases and perspectives of the individuals who created the archives themselves.

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