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'On-the-Spot' accident investigations have confirmed that errors of perception by the driver are a major contributory factor to accidents. However, the available evidence suggests that few of these are attributable to reduced or defective vision, since at best only a weak relationship has been found between a driver's level of vision (or visual performance) and his accident rate. A number of reasons for this general finding are considered, including driver compensation. For all drivers, the rapid fall in visual acuity with angular distance from the centre of vision presents particular problems, giving special significance to eye-movement patterns and the problems of visual search. Numerous physical and psychophysical restrictions on visibility could lead to the 'looked, but failed to see' type of accident, but their relative importance requires evaluation. There is now much evidence that the driver is quite often operating beyond his visual or perceptual capabilities in a number of key driving situations, including overtaking, joining or crossing a high-speed road, and a number of nighttime situations. It is concluded that 'expectancy', based on experience in both the long and the short term, has a profound influence on driver perception and assessment of risk. For all drivers, serious errors of judgement from time to time would seem inevitable. In general, these do not lead to accidents because of, among other things, the safety margins added by the driver and adjustments made by other road users. Thus, despite his limitations and fallibilities, the average driver is involved in surprisingly few serious incidents, particularly in view of the rapid rate of decision making that is required. However, the present accident rate should not be accepted as inevitable and various countermeasures are discussed.", "publicationTitle": "Perception", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "1980", "volume": "9", "issue": "2", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "183-216", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "03010066", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": { "owl:sameAs": "http://zotero.org/groups/168112/items/W3G6PDXP" }, "dateAdded": "2013-05-02T04:45:38Z", "dateModified": "2013-05-02T04:46:31Z" } }, { "key": "WCNE99BG", "version": 31, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 164591, "name": "Bicycle Light", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/bicycle_light", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/164591/items/WCNE99BG", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/bicycle_light/items/WCNE99BG", "type": "text/html" }, "up": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/164591/items/ADJJ9E2B", "type": "application/json" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 966417, "username": "kah.chan", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/kah.chan", "type": "text/html" } } } }, "data": { "key": "WCNE99BG", "version": 31, "parentItem": "ADJJ9E2B", "itemType": "attachment", "linkMode": "linked_url", "title": "PubMed Link", "accessDate": "2013-05-02T04:45:18Z", "url": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3010066", "note": "", "contentType": "text/html", "charset": "", "tags": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2013-05-02T04:45:18Z", "dateModified": "2013-05-02T04:45:18Z" } }, { "key": "K4G6QPD8", "version": 30, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 164591, "name": "Bicycle Light", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/bicycle_light", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/164591/items/K4G6QPD8", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/bicycle_light/items/K4G6QPD8", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 966417, "username": "kah.chan", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/kah.chan", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Wood et al.", "parsedDate": "2009", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "K4G6QPD8", "version": 30, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Cyclist visibility at night : perceptions of visibility do not necessarily match reality", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Joanne, M", "lastName": "Wood" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Richard A", "lastName": "Tyrrell" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Ralph P", "lastName": "Marszalek" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Philippe F", "lastName": "Lacharez" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Trent P", "lastName": "Carberry" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Byoung Sun", "lastName": "Chu" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Mark J", "lastName": "King" } ], "abstractNote": "Visibility limitations make cycling at night particularly dangerous. We previously reported cyclists’ perceptions of their own visibility at night and identified clothing configurations that made them feel visible. In this study we sought to determine whether these self-perceptions reflect actual visibility when wearing these clothing configurations. In a closed-road driving environment, cyclists wore black clothing, a fluorescent vest, a reflective vest, or a reflective vest plus ankle and knee reflectors. Drivers recognised more cyclists wearing the reflective vest plus reflectors (90%) than the reflective vest alone (50%), fluorescent vest (15%) or black clothing (2%). Older drivers recognised the cyclists less often than younger drivers (51% vs 27%). The findings suggest that reflective ankle and knee markings are particularly valuable at night, while fluorescent clothing is not. Cyclists wearing fluorescent clothing may be at particular risk if they incorrectly believe themselves to be conspicuous to drivers at night.", "publicationTitle": "Journal of the Australasian College of Road Safety", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "2009", "volume": "21", "issue": "3", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "56-60", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": { "owl:sameAs": "http://zotero.org/groups/168112/items/C86V8BMJ" }, "dateAdded": "2013-05-01T00:41:47Z", "dateModified": "2013-05-02T04:36:04Z" } }, { "key": "DUVZCZ5T", "version": 29, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 164591, "name": "Bicycle Light", "links": { "alternate": { 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"dateAdded": "2013-05-01T01:29:33Z", "dateModified": "2013-05-01T01:29:33Z" } }, { "key": "SZDCHEC5", "version": 16, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 164591, "name": "Bicycle Light", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/bicycle_light", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/164591/items/SZDCHEC5", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/bicycle_light/items/SZDCHEC5", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 966417, "username": "kah.chan", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/kah.chan", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Kwan and Mapstone", "parsedDate": "2006-10-18", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "SZDCHEC5", "version": 16, "itemType": "bookSection", "title": "Interventions for increasing pedestrian and cyclist visibility for the prevention of death and injuries", "creators": [ { "creatorType": 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"2013-05-01T00:27:39Z", "dateModified": "2013-05-01T00:27:39Z" } }, { "key": "2NIUN2AN", "version": 9, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 164591, "name": "Bicycle Light", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/bicycle_light", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/164591/items/2NIUN2AN", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/bicycle_light/items/2NIUN2AN", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 966417, "username": "kah.chan", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/kah.chan", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Fors and Lundkvist", "parsedDate": "2009", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "2NIUN2AN", "version": 9, "itemType": "report", "title": "Night-time traffic in urban areas - A literature review on road user aspects", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Carina", "lastName": "Fors" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Sven-Olof", "lastName": "Lundkvist" } ], "abstractNote": "Human vision is not well adapted to night-time conditions. Hence, road users need technical solutions, such as street lighting and retroreflective materials, in order to be able to drive, cycle or walk safe at night. Night-time traffic implies some certain problems, for example glare and difficulties with detecting obstacles and estimating distances. Different groups of road users have different prerequisites and needs, and the problems encountered may thus vary. In order to improve traffic safety and accessibility under night-time conditions, the needs and problems of all road user groups must be taken into consideration. It is also important to adapt the technology that aims to facilitate night-time traffic to the road users who will use it.\n\nThe aim of this literature study is to review recent research on night-time traffic from a road user perspective. The report discusses road users’ behaviour, needs and problems in relation to other road users as well as to traffic environment. The study includes 128 references from 1998–2008 and it mainly concerns urban areas.\n\nAccident statistics show that pedestrians are at a greater risk of having an accident at night than during daylight conditions. For drivers, research indicates that there are no substantial differences in accident risk between darkness and daylight, when the influence from other factors such as alcohol and drowsiness is controlled for.\n\nA problem that is frequently discussed in literature is drivers’ difficulties in detecting pedestrians. One explanation given is that the ability to steer a vehicle is not affected by darkness, which results in the driver not being aware of the reduced visibility and thus not adjust the driving to the present conditions. In addition, pedestrians tend to overestimate their own conspicuity, which may cause them to expose themselves to potential risky situations.\n\nMany older drivers avoid night-time driving. Increased sensitivity to glare and age-related visual impairment may be some of the reasons, but literature does not provide a complete picture.\n\nBicyclists’ needs and problems in night-time traffic are not well documented. Accident statistics indicate that bicyclists may be at an increased risk of having an accident in darkness, but besides that almost no information is available from literature.\n\nAlso, there is very little literature on visually impaired people and their experiences of night-time traffic. Some eye diseases are very common, especially among older people, and research shows that many of those affected continue to drive. Knowledge about these road user groups is thus important.\n\nRegarding the interaction between road users and road environment, mainly studies about street lighting were found. Among other things, the studies report about new lamp types that both improve visibility and have lower energy consumption. Other studies indicate that the visibility of road markings seldom meets the road users’ demands. Literature on traffic lights and traffic signs was limited to a few studies, while no information at all about road surfaces was found.\n\nAn area interesting for further research is visibility and detection of pedestrians, which includes behavioural aspects as well as technical solutions. Other areas that are interesting for further studies are older and visually impaired road users’ experiences and problems in night-time traffic, and also bicyclists’ visibility and needs.", "reportNumber": "R650A", "reportType": "", "institution": "", "place": "", "date": "2009", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesNumber": "", "pages": "", "DOI": "", "ISBN": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": { "owl:sameAs": "http://zotero.org/groups/168112/items/36DPG9S2" }, "dateAdded": "2013-05-01T00:26:04Z", "dateModified": "2013-05-01T00:27:14Z" } }, { "key": "AP5Z5D4G", "version": 8, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 164591, "name": "Bicycle Light", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/bicycle_light", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": 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