Defining design research
\nThese design efforts include design of curriculum, software, professional development, school organizations, and school–community collaborations. This new wave of research, characterized by iterative design and formative research in complex real world settings, has been variously called design experiments (Brown, 1992; Collins, 1992), design research (Cobb, 2001), and development research (Richey & Nelson, 1996; van den Akker, 1999). These new efforts pose important challenges for researchers, not because design is entirely new to educational research, but because the relationship between the design and the research is changing, and because the complexity of the designs and their settings present challenges for traditional research methodologies.
The conventional role of design in educational research has been as a strategyfor testing theories. Cobb (2001) described this theory testing as a four-step sequence:
1. The development of a theory.
2. The derivation of principles for design from the theory.
3. The translation of the principles into concrete designs.
4. The assessment of the designs to test whether they work as anticipated.
In the recent literature on design experiments and design research, researchers present a different picture of the role of design in their research (Brown, 1992;
Kelly & Lesh, 2000; Richey & Nelson, 1996; van den Akker, 1999). They describe a process in which design plays a critical role in the development of theories, not
just their evaluation. In this theory development approach, the design researchers begin with a set of hypotheses and principles that they use to guide a design process. Importantly, these hypotheses and principles are not detailed enough to determine every design decision.
In this way, the design researchers proceed through iterative cycles of design and implementation, using
each implementation as an opportunity to collect data to inform subsequent design.
Through a parallel and retrospective process of reflection upon the design and its outcomes, the design researchers elaborate upon their initial hypotheses and principles, refining, adding, and discarding—gradually knitting together a coherent
theory that reflects their understanding of the design experience. Confrey and Lachance (2000) described this process in the following way: “At points in its evo-lution, the conjecture should feel more like a grand scheme beginning to emergefrom many, previously disparate pieces” (p. 235).
Résumé
\nBarab & Squire (2004) Design-Based Research: Putting a Stake in the Ground. THE JOURNAL OF THE LEARNING SCIENCES, 13(1), 1–14
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Cet article se donne pour objectif de répondre à plusieurs questions concernant la recherche en conception, telles que : Quel est le cœur de la recherche en conception et qu’est-ce qui la différencie des autres types de recherche ? Qu’est-ce qui peut compter comme une garantie raisonnable et utile pour appuyer les affirmations qui ont été examinées à travers ce type de recherche ? Quelles sont les frontières d’un contexte naturel ? Comment contrôlons-nous le biais du chercheur dans la sélection des preuves, dans le rapport de ses observations et dans le développement d’affirmations fiables ? Comment comprenons-nous l’aspect contextuel des affirmations générées par la recherche in situ et comment les utilisons-nous pour informer la pratique plus générale ?
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Les caractéristiques de la recherche en conception (design-based research)
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Pour mieux comprendre le besoin de nouvelles méthodes dans la recherche en éducation, il convient de clarifier la distinction entre les méthodes existantes pour comprendre l’apprentissage et celles propres à la recherche en conception. Collins, Joseph, and Bielaczyc, dans leur manuscrit, comparent cette recherche avec plusieurs autres méthodologies. Ils postulent qu’il existe sept différences majeures entre les méthodes psychologiques traditionnelles et la méthodologie de l’expérimentation en conception. Un point central de cette distinction est l’importance que la recherche en conception accorde à la compréhension du désordre de la pratique concrète, dans laquelle le contexte est au cœur du problème et non pas une variable externe qui peut être banalisée. De plus, la recherche en conception implique une révision flexible, des variables multiples et interdépendantes et la prise en compte des interactions sociales. Les participants ne sont pas vus comme des « sujets » qui subissent des traitements mais sont plutôt traités comme des coparticipants dans conception et l’analyse. Finalement, l’accent est mis sur la caractérisation des situations, plutôt que sur le contrôle de variables, ce qui permet d’en déduire des théories pratiques, au contraire du simple test d’hypothèses.
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En somme, ce qui définit la recherche en conception est a) une volonté constante de relier les interventions en conception avec la théorie existante, b) le fait que cette recherche peut générer de nouvelles théories et c) que dans plusieurs recherches le contexte est nécessaire à l’ontologie de la recherche, pour bien comprendre les variables en jeu
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Proposer des affirmations crédibles
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Les chercheurs en conception doivent répondre à une question importante : Qu’est-ce qui peut être considéré comme une preuve crédible ? L’utilité est un critère communément invoqué lors de l’étude de la validité d’une recherche. Dans le cas de la recherche en conception, celle-ci sera considérée comme utile si elle remplit deux conditions : avoir un impact direct sur la pratique et faire avancer la théorie, afin d’aider les autres qui chercheront à poursuivre de semblables travaux. En science, l’une des qualités principales à considérer est sa reproductibilité. Considérant l’importance accordée au contexte dans la recherche en conception, il lui est difficile de produire des résultats qui répondent à ce critère. Par contre, par sa contribution à la théorie en la matière, cette recherche permet d’obtenir une généralisation de certains phénomènes, afin de traiter plusieurs designs spécifiques alternatifs.
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Définir le contexte naturel
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L’un des aspects principaux de la recherche en conception est le fait qu’elle situe son travail dans un « contexte naturel ». Bien que la majorité des chercheurs s’entendent sur ce fait, les frontières du contexte et de ce qui est naturel sont floues. Il est nécessaire de tracer la limite de ce qui est inclus dans le contexte de la recherche, à des fins de contrôle et d’explication, mais il faut se rappeler que le monde réel ne se divise pas selon les limites choisies par les chercheurs. Ces limites doivent être problématisées et considérées dans la recherche, afin de s’assurer de la validité du travail effectué.
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\nCollins, Joseph and Bielaczyc, (1999) posit seven major differences between traditional psychological methods and the design-experiment methodology (Table 1).
\nCentral to this distinction is that design-based research focuses on understanding the messiness of real-world practice, with context being a core part of the story and not an extraneous variable to be trivializes. Further, design-based research involves flexible design revision, multiple dependent variables, and capturing social interaction. In addition, participants are not “subjects” assigned to treatments but instead are treated as co-participants in both the design and even the analysis. Last, given the focus on characterizing situations (as opposed to controlling variables), the focus of design-based research may be on developing a profile or theory that characterizes the design in practice (as opposed to simply testing hypothesis).[1]
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Table 1
\nComparing Psychological Experimentation and Design-Based Research Methods
\n| \n Category \n | \n\n PE \n | \n\n DBR \n | \n
| \n Location of research \n | \n\n Conducted in laboratory settings \n | \n\n Occurs in the buzzing, blooming confusion of real-life settings where most learning actually occurs \n | \n
| \n Complexity of variables \n | \n\n Frequently involves a single or couple of dependent variables \n | \n\n Involves multiple dependent variables, including climate variables (e.g., collaboration among learners, available resources), outcome variables (e.g., learning of content, transfer), and system variables (e.g., dissemination, sustainability) \n | \n
| \n Focus of research \n | \n\n Focuses on identify a few variables and holding them constant \n | \n\n Focuses on characterizing the situation in all its complexity, much of which is not now a priori \n | \n
| \n Unfolding of procedures \n | \n\n Used fixed procedures \n | \n\n Involves flexible design revision in which there is a tentative initial set that are revised depending on their success in practice \n | \n
| \n Amount of social interaction \n | \n\n Isolates learners to control interaction \n | \n\n Frequently involves complex social interaction with participants sharing ideas, distracting each other, and so on \n | \n
| \n Characterizing the findings \n | \n\n Focuses on testing hypothesis \n | \n\n Involves looking at multiple aspects of the design and developing a profile that characterizes the design in practice \n | \n
| \n Role of participants \n | \n\n Treats participants as subjects \n | \n\n Involves different participants in the design so as to bring their differing expertise into producing and analyzing the design \n | \n
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[1] It is important to note that this contrast is not meant to deride the importance of traditional psychological methods. In fact, it is our belief that DBR and other methods should be viewed as complementary and supportive – allowing researchers to understand more completely their claims.
\nNienke Nieveen: L'approche prototypique dans la DBR
\nUn prototype est une version préliminaire de la totalité ou d’une partie d’une intervention avant que tous les efforts soient mis afin de construire et de tester le produit final. Les prototypes peuvent être utilisés de deux façons. D’un côté, il peut être constamment amélioré et évoluer en un produit fini. Cette approche s’appelle « evolutionary prototyping ». D’un autre côté, les chercheurs peuvent utiliser des prototypes dits « jetables ». Chaque prototype est évalué puis jeté, tandis que les résultats de cette évaluation seront intégrés au prochain prototype.
\nLe développement d'un prototype
\nL'évaluation formative
\nDans le contexte de la design-based research, l’évaluation formative se définit comme une activité effectuée systématiquement (incluant la design-based research, la collecte de données, l’analyse des données, les rapports) qui vise à l’amélioration de la qualité d’une intervention prototypique et des « principes de conception » qui l’accompagnent.
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\nIt is a general formulation of the mechanism through which the forms of material culture are internalized by an individual due to participation in collective material activities in the society. [...] Consciousness and meaning are always formed in a joint, collective activity (Leont’ev, 1978). As a result, the unit of analysis in studying human mediated activity is an activity system, a community of actors who have a common object of activity (Cole and Engeström, 1993, Engeström, 1987) (p.174).
\nIn [activity theory], the subject-object relation is a historical phenomenon that came into existence as a result of the biological and cultural evolution (p.178).
\nCharacterizing activity theory
\nThe Activity Theory emphasis on social factors and on interaction between agents and their environments explains why the principle of tool mediation plays a central role within the approach. (p.191)
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Defining activity theory
\nActivity Theory is not a \"theory\" in the strict interpretation of the term. [...] [It] consists of a set of basic principles which constitute a general conceptual system which can be used as a foundation for more specific theories. These basic principles of Activity Theory include object-orientedness, the dual concepts of internalization/externalization, tool mediation, hierarchical structure of activity, and continuous development.
\nThe very concept of activity implies that there is an agent who acts (an individual or collective \"subject\"). Then, any activity is directed at something, so there should be things the agent is interacting with. According to the Activity Theory terminology, activity mediates interaction between subjects (agents) and objects (things). (p.191)
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