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            "creatorSummary": "Hartge and Rahte",
            "parsedDate": "1983",
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            "itemType": "journalArticle",
            "title": "Schrumpf- und scherrisse—labormessungen",
            "creators": [
                {
                    "creatorType": "author",
                    "firstName": "K.H.",
                    "lastName": "Hartge"
                },
                {
                    "creatorType": "author",
                    "firstName": "I.",
                    "lastName": "Rahte"
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            "abstractNote": "In clayey soils, cracks may be developed by contraction as well as by swelling. The first type can be recognized by predominance of right angles between neighboring cracks. The latter type can be recognized from appreciable numbers of non-right angles. For the latter, two directions can be observed that depart to about the same extent from right angles. The relative numbers of non-right angles increase with the intensity of structure development in a soil. If stresses normal to directions of older cracks are assumed to cause the measured values of angles, the departures from 45° should in turn be measures of internal friction at times of failure. The interpretation is consistent with the relative stability of investigated soil aggregates as usually observed under field conditions.  Zusammenfassung Als Ursache der Aggregatbildung bindiger Böden tritt neben der Rissbildung durch Schrumpfung auch noch Rissbildung infolge einseitiger Quellung auf. Diese Risse sind an den nichtrechten Winkeln erkennbar, die zwischen ihnen auftreten. Es werden dabei zwei Richtungen festgestellt, die beide etwa gleichstark von den rechten Winkeln abweichen. Der Anteil dieser nichtrechten Winkel an der Gesamtzahl nimmt mit zunehmender Intensität der Bodenentwicklung zu; ihre Abweichung von 45° und daher auch der zugehörigen Winkel der inneren Reibung nimmt gleichzeitig zu.",
            "publicationTitle": "Geoderma",
            "publisher": "",
            "place": "",
            "date": "Diciembre 1983",
            "volume": "31",
            "issue": "4",
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            "partTitle": "",
            "pages": "325-336",
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            "journalAbbreviation": "Geoderma",
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            "creatorSummary": "Horn and Dexter",
            "parsedDate": "1989",
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            "title": "Dynamics of soil aggregation in an irrigated desert loess",
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                    "firstName": "R.",
                    "lastName": "Horn"
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            "abstractNote": "Experiments were made on an irrigated loess in the Negev Desert, Israel. Lysimeters were filled with disturbed, homogenized soil, and a single almond tree was planted in each of them. The soil in these lysimeters was sampled 1.5 and 2.5 years after the start of the experiment. Additionally, some samples of older, undisturbed soil were examined. Aggregate tensile strength was measured by an indirect tension (crushing) test, and the dry bulk density of the aggregates was determined. It was found that aggregate tensile strength increased progressively with time after disturbance such that the old undisturbed soil was approximately three times stronger than the soil 1.5 years after homogenization. Higher levels of root density and more intensive drying increased aggregate strength. Aggregate density first increased with time after homogenization, but then appeared to decrease steadily towards a low equilibrium value. Mechanisms are proposed to explain these observations.",
            "publicationTitle": "Soil and Tillage Research",
            "publisher": "",
            "place": "",
            "date": "Abril 1989",
            "volume": "13",
            "issue": "3",
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            "partTitle": "",
            "pages": "253-266",
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            "DOI": "10.1016/0167-1987(89)90002-0",
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            "creatorSummary": "Semmel et al.",
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            "version": 4,
            "itemType": "journalArticle",
            "title": "The dynamics of soil aggregate formation and the effect on soil physical properties",
            "creators": [
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                    "creatorType": "author",
                    "firstName": "H.",
                    "lastName": "Semmel"
                },
                {
                    "creatorType": "author",
                    "firstName": "R.",
                    "lastName": "Horn"
                },
                {
                    "creatorType": "author",
                    "firstName": "U.",
                    "lastName": "Hell"
                },
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                    "firstName": "A.R.",
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            "abstractNote": "Summary \nHomogenized loess from the Negev Desert, Israel, was used to fill 48 lysimeters, of which 42 were each planted with a single almond tree. Wetting and drying cycles started after an initial watering to field capacity. Three groupings of lysimeters were formed according to the water suction at which the soil was irrigated thus initiating a new wetting and drying cycle. Water suctions of 31.kPa, 63 kPa, and 1500 kPa respectively were chosen. After up to 20 cycles the trees were harvested and the physical properties of single aggregates were determined. Measured parameters were aggregate size distribution, bulk density, tensile strength, penetrometer resistance, water retention curves, aspect ratios, spatial salt concentration, spatial particle size distribution and saturated water conductivity. \n \nIt was found that drying intensity had a highly significant effect on physical properties. More intensive drying before irrigation decreased tensile strength and penetrometer resistance and also resulted in a finer aggregate size distribution and in higher contents of plant available water. Bulk density seemed to decrease again after having reached a maximum value. Aspect ratios and saturated water conductivity were not affected significantly by drying intensities. Higher electrical conductivity (salt concentration) and a slight accumulation of clay was found in the outer part of aggregates. \n \nSix lysimeters contained loess without a tree. The soil in these lysimeters showed much less strength than aggregates formed under similar conditions, but influenced by plant roots. Mechanisms are proposed to explain these observations.",
            "publicationTitle": "Soil Technology",
            "publisher": "",
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            "date": "Junio 1990",
            "volume": "3",
            "issue": "2",
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            "pages": "113-129",
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            "creatorSummary": "Oades",
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            "itemType": "journalArticle",
            "title": "The role of biology in the formation, stabilization and degradation of soil structure",
            "creators": [
                {
                    "creatorType": "author",
                    "firstName": "J.M.",
                    "lastName": "Oades"
                }
            ],
            "abstractNote": "Soil structure is defined as the arrangement of particles and associated pores in soils across the size range from nanometres to centimetres. Biologic influences can be demonstrated in the formation and stabilization of aggregates but it is necessary to distinguish clearly between those forces or agencies which create aggregations of particles and those which stabilize or degrade such aggregations.\n\nThe formation of soil structure involves the physical forces of shrinking and swelling created by changes in water status of soils, freezing and thawing, tillage, or by movement of the larger biota in soils. Expansive properties of soils are controlled by the clay content. Thus changes of structural organisation are minimal in sands and maximal in clays. Plant roots, earthworms and other macrofauna large enough to move soil particles create pores recognisable by cylindrical shapes and smooth curved surfaces. Various visual and microscopic techniques aided by dyes are available to demonstrate the extent of biovoids in soils.\n\nBiology plays a major role in stabilization of soil structure. The major factors vary depending on the scale of soil structure. At larger scales plant roots and associated hyphae can be seen to enmesh soil particles by acting as a “sticky string bag”. At the microscale the influence of mucilages from roots, hyphae, bacteria and fauna such as earthworms can be shown by a range of microscopic techniques to be involved in stabilizing smaller aggregates and the linings of biopores. Techniques include optical and fluorescence microscopy, scanning electron microscopy including EDAX, transmission electron microscopy using heavy metals or other electron dense staining techniques for specific chemical compounds, and computer aided tomography. The microscopic techniques can be used on individual aggregates, stabilized soils, sections or separates of soils.\n\nBoth microflora and fauna are involved in the degradation of stabilizing agents. Fauna may comminute roots and hyphae which stabilized larger aggregates and microorganisms utilize mucilaginous stabilizing agents as an energy source resulting in a slow breakdown of structural stability. Such effects can be established by combinations of studies of aggregation including microscopy. Further destruction of structure is caused by tillage and compaction by vehicles and animals.",
            "publicationTitle": "Geoderma",
            "publisher": "",
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            "date": "Marzo 15, 1993",
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            "pages": "377-400",
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            "creatorSummary": "Bouma",
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            "title": "Soil morphology and preferential flow along macropores",
            "creators": [
                {
                    "creatorType": "author",
                    "firstName": "J.",
                    "lastName": "Bouma"
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            ],
            "abstractNote": "Preferential flow of water along macropores can only be characterized in quantitative terms when the flow system is functionally characterized by using tracers. Standard descriptions of soil structure do not provide adequate information. Expensive micromorphometric techniques allow specific measurements of macropores in terms of size, type, shape and continuity. In expensive macromorphometric techniques are attractive for field use.\n\nPreferential flow in saturated soil involves rapid displacement of water from macropores (hydrodynamic dispersion). In unsaturated soil, flow into air-filled macropores (short-circuiting) occurs, which is followed by lateral absorption.\n\nExamples are discussed which illustrate the use of soil morphology to characterize preferential flow along macropores: (i) empirical extrapolation of measured data on the basis of macrostructure descriptions. So far, this procedure could only be applied to breakthrough curves of soils with identical textures but very different macrostructures; (ii) using staining techniques which provide essential boundary conditions for newly developed physical flow models. The latter describe macropores in terms of size, type and shape, rather than in terms of relative volumes; and (iii) developing physical interpretations of pedological features, such as mottling patterns.\n\nThe examples are based on four case studies which deal with practical problems of soil water management. In these studies, morphological methods provided essential data, which could not have been obtained by physical methods.",
            "publicationTitle": "Agricultural Water Management",
            "publisher": "",
            "place": "",
            "date": "Julio 1981",
            "volume": "3",
            "issue": "4",
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            "partNumber": "",
            "partTitle": "",
            "pages": "235-250",
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            "DOI": "10.1016/0378-3774(81)90009-3",
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            "creatorSummary": "Blackwell et al.",
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                    "firstName": "W. K.",
                    "lastName": "Mason"
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            "abstractNote": "The channels created in soil by roots and soil animals (biopores) play an important role in the subsequent movement of water, air, and new roots through irrigated clay soils in southeastern Australia. The maintenance of these biopores is critical for both crop productivity and erosion control. If these biopores are to remain open, they must be able to withstand the vertical stresses associated with vehicle and animal traffic. This study had three aims: (i) to examine the influence on porosity and permeability of naturally occurring channels, (ii) to determine the magnitude of vertical stresses that artificially created channels could withstand, (iii) to test the effect of channel angle to the direction of the stress. Air-filled porosity of soil cores at -10 J/kg was decreased in a linear fashion as the applied stress was increased from 50 to 400 kPa. The reduction in air-filled porosity was relatively independent of the size or the presence of biopores. However, the intrinsic permeability of the soil cores to air was positively correlated with the diameter of the biopores, and the permeability was little affected by applied stresses up to 200 kPa if the initial diameter of the biopores was >3.5 mm. The resistance of the channels to stresses was greatest if the vertical stress was parallel to the axis of the channels. Agricultural practices on these soils should not only encourage formation of biopores, but should also minimize stresses >200 kPa to the subsoil so that these biopores can remain open.",
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            "date": "Juli 1, 1990",
            "volume": "54",
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            "pages": "1088-1091",
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            "note": "<p>pt. 1. Physical and mineralogical methods / Arnold Klute, editor -- pt. 2. Chemical and microbiological properties / A.L. Page, editor</p>",
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            "series": "Agronomy",
            "seriesNumber": "no. 9",
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                    "firstName": "M. Th.",
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            "accessDate": "2012-11-05T11:00:13Z",
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            "language": "en",
            "libraryCatalog": "www.soils.org",
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            "dateAdded": "2013-02-06T13:38:24Z",
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            "abstractNote": "This report describes the RETC computer code for analyzing the soil water retention and\nhydraulic conductivity functions of unsaturated soils. These hydraulic properties are key\nparameters in any quantitative description of water flow into and through the unsaturated zone\nof soils. The program uses the parametric models of Brooks-Corey and van Genuchten to\nrepresent the soil water retention curve, and the theoretical pore-size distribution models of\nMualem and Burdine to predict the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function from observed\nsoil water retention data. The report gives a detailed discussion of the different analytical\nexpressions used for quantifying the soil water retention and hydraulic conductivity functions.\nA brief review is also given of the nonlinear least-squares parameter optimization method used\nfor estimating the unknown coefficients in the hydraulic models. Several examples are presented\nto illustrate a variety of program options. The program may be used to predict the hydraulic\nconductivity from observed soil water retention data assuming that one observed conductivity\nvalue (not necessarily at saturation) is available. The program also permits one to fit analytical\nfunctions simultaneously to observed water retention and hydraulic conductivity data. The report\nserves as both a user manual and reference document. Detailed information is given on the\ncomputer program along with instructions for data input preparation and sample input and output\nfiles. A listing of the source code is also provided.",
            "publicationTitle": "EPA Report",
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