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Learning as a function of the simultaneous presence of the hunger and thirst drives", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "H. 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A measure of risk aversion in the small, the risk premium or insurance premium for an arbitrary risk, and a natural concept of decreasing risk aversion are discussed and related to one another. Risks are also considered as a proportion of total assets.", "publicationTitle": "Econometrica", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "1964", "volume": "32", "issue": "1/2", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "122-136", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "prattRiskAversionSmall1964", "url": "http://www.jstor.org/stable/1913738", "accessDate": "2010-10-27T09:01:53Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "00129682", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "JSTOR", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Jan. - Apr., 1964 / Copyright © 1964 The Econometric Society", "tags": [], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T09:01:53Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "SXM2CCMA", "version": 4848, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/SXM2CCMA", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/SXM2CCMA", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Kahneman and Tversky", "parsedDate": "1979", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "SXM2CCMA", "version": 4848, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Daniel", "lastName": "Kahneman" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Amos", "lastName": "Tversky" } ], "abstractNote": "This paper presents a critique of expected utility theory as a descriptive model of decision making under risk, and develops an alternative model, called prospect theory. Choices among risky prospects exhibit several pervasive effects that are inconsistent with the basic tenets of utility theory. In particular, people underweight outcomes that are merely probable in comparison with outcomes that are obtained with certainty. This tendency, called the certainty effect, contributes to risk aversion in choices involving sure gains and to risk seeking in choices involving sure losses. In addition, people generally discard components that are shared by all prospects under consideration. This tendency, called the isolation effect, leads to inconsistent preferences when the same choice is presented in different forms. An alternative theory of choice is developed, in which value is assigned to gains and losses rather than to final assets and in which probabilities are replaced by decision weights. The value function is normally concave for gains, commonly convex for losses, and is generally steeper for losses than for gains. Decision weights are generally lower than the corresponding probabilities, except in the range of low probabilities. Overweighting of low probabilities may contribute to the attractiveness of both insurance and gambling.", "publicationTitle": "Econometrica", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "1979", "volume": "47", "issue": "2", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "263-291", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "kahnemanProspectTheoryAnalysis1979", "url": "http://www.jstor.org/stable/1914185", "accessDate": "2010-10-27T09:00:49Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "00129682", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "Prospect Theory", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "JSTOR", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Mar., 1979 / Copyright © 1979 The Econometric Society", "tags": [], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T09:00:49Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "GWGAB6ZV", "version": 4848, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/GWGAB6ZV", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/GWGAB6ZV", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Brown and McFarland", "parsedDate": "1979-08", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "GWGAB6ZV", "version": 4848, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Interaction of hunger and sexual motivation in the male rat: A time-sharing approach", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Richard E.", "lastName": "Brown" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "D. J.", "lastName": "McFarland" } ], "abstractNote": "To examine the interaction of hunger and sexual motivation, male rats were given sexual behaviour tests under 0, 24, and 48 h of food deprivation. Each male was placed with an oestrous-induced female and allowed to copulate until sexual exhaustion. Food was freely available throughout the test period. Mount and intromission latencies increased under both levels of food deprivation, but neither ejaculation frequency nor any of the other fourteen measures of sexual behaviour were altered under deprivation conditions. There was a decreased latency to start eating, an increase in time spent eating, and an increase in the amount of food eaten with increased food deprivation. The frequency of feeding bouts increased, but the duration of feeding bouts was constant over deprivation conditions. Under food deprivation, animals shifted from sexual behaviour to feeding more frequently than when they were non-deprived. These shifts occurred primarily during periods of low sexual arousal. The majority of feeding occurred during the post-ejaculatory intervals. Bouts of sexual behaviour were not usually interrupted by bouts of feeding. This pattern suggests that feeding and sexual activity occur on a time-sharing basis with sexual behaviour as the dominant activity.", "publicationTitle": "Animal Behaviour", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "August 1979", "volume": "27", "issue": "Part 3", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "887-896", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "10.1016/0003-3472(79)90026-5", "citationKey": "brownInteractionHungerSexual1979", "url": "http://www.sciencedirect.com.gate1.inist.fr/science/article/B6W9W-4F2M5GV-8C/2/73dcf33d22cf8ce769dc7fcc0c9e52fc", "accessDate": "2010-10-27T08:52:48Z", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "0003-3472", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "Interaction of hunger and sexual motivation in the male rat", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "ScienceDirect", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T08:52:48Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "5ZMANRHI", "version": 4848, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/5ZMANRHI", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/5ZMANRHI", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Mrosovsky", "parsedDate": "1990", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "5ZMANRHI", 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P.", "lastName": "Richter" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "J. F.", "lastName": "Eckert" } ], "abstractNote": "", "publicationTitle": "American Journal of Medical Science", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "1939", "volume": "198", "issue": "", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "9-16", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "richterMineralAppetiteParathyroidectomized1939", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T08:53:25Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "S35W68K2", "version": 4848, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/S35W68K2", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/S35W68K2", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Verplanck and Hayes", "parsedDate": "1953", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "S35W68K2", "version": 4848, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Eating and drinking as a function of maintenance schedule", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "W S", "lastName": "Verplanck" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "J R", "lastName": "Hayes" } ], "abstractNote": "", 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"publicationTitle": "", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "brownInteractionHungerSexual", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T08:51:44Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "8SSX4QBA", "version": 4848, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/8SSX4QBA", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { 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H.", "lastName": "Kendler" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "F R", "lastName": "Law" } ], "abstractNote": "", "publicationTitle": "Journal of Experimental Psychology", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "Jun 1950", "volume": "40", "issue": "3", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "299-304", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "J Exp Psychol", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "kendlerExperimentalTestSelective1950", "url": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.gate2.inist.fr/pubmed/15428587", "accessDate": "2010-10-27T08:45:49Z", "PMID": "15428587", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "0022-1015", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "NCBI PubMed", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Conditioning (Psychology)", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Learning", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T08:45:49Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "M5BSA9AS", "version": 4847, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/M5BSA9AS", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/M5BSA9AS", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Tsujino and Sakurai", "parsedDate": "2009-06", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "M5BSA9AS", "version": 4847, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Orexin/hypocretin: a neuropeptide at the interface of sleep, energy homeostasis, and reward system", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Natsuko", "lastName": "Tsujino" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Takeshi", "lastName": "Sakurai" } ], "abstractNote": "Recent studies have implicated the orexin system as a critical regulator of sleep/wake states as well as feeding behavior and reward processes. Orexin deficiency results in narcolepsy in humans, dogs, and rodents, suggesting that the orexin system is particularly important for maintenance of wakefulness. In addition, orexin deficiency also cause abnormalities in energy homeostasis and reward systems. Orexin activates waking active monoaminergic and cholinergic neurons in the hypothalamus and brainstem regions to maintain a long, consolidated waking period. Orexin neurons receive abundant input from the limbic system. Orexin neurons also have reciprocal links with the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus, which regulates feeding. Moreover, the responsiveness of orexin neurons to peripheral metabolic cues, such as leptin and glucose, suggest that these neurons have important role as a link between the energy homeostasis and vigilance states. Orexin neurons also have a link with the dopaminergic reward system in the ventral tegmental nucleus. These findings suggest that the orexin system interacts with systems that regulate emotion, reward, and energy homeostasis to maintain proper vigilance states. Therefore, this system may be a potentially important therapeutic target for treatment of sleep disorder, obesity, emotional stress, and addiction.", "publicationTitle": "Pharmacological Reviews", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "Jun 2009", "volume": "61", "issue": "2", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "162-176", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "Pharmacol. Rev", "DOI": "10.1124/pr.109.001321", "citationKey": "tsujinoOrexinHypocretinNeuropeptide2009", "url": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.gate2.inist.fr/pubmed/19549926", "accessDate": "2010-10-27T09:17:23Z", "PMID": "19549926", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "1521-0081", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "Orexin/hypocretin", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "NCBI PubMed", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Amino Acid Sequence", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Animals", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Energy Metabolism", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Homeostasis", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Humans", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Molecular Sequence Data", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neuropeptides", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Reward", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Signal Transduction", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Sleep", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Sleep Disorders", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Wakefulness", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T09:17:23Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "XVGNUA3H", "version": 4847, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/XVGNUA3H", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/XVGNUA3H", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Baldo et al.", "parsedDate": "2003-09-15", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "XVGNUA3H", "version": 4847, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Overlapping distributions of orexin/hypocretin- and dopamine-beta-hydroxylase immunoreactive fibers in rat brain regions mediating arousal, motivation, and stress", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Brian A", "lastName": "Baldo" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Roger A", "lastName": "Daniel" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Craig W", "lastName": "Berridge" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Ann E", "lastName": "Kelley" } ], "abstractNote": "A double-label immunohistochemical study was carried out to investigate overlap between dopamine-beta-hydroxylase (DbetaH) -immunopositive projections and the projections of hypothalamic neurons containing the arousal- and feeding-related peptide, orexin/hypocretin (HCRT), in rat brain. Numerous intermingled HCRT-immunopositive and DbetaH-immunopositive fibers were seen in a ventrally situated corridor extending from the hypothalamus to deep layers of the infralimbic cortex. Both fiber types avoided the nucleus accumbens core, caudate putamen, and the globus pallidus. In the diencephalon, overlap was observed in several hypothalamic areas, including the perifornical, dorsomedial, and paraventricular nuclei, as well as in the paraventricular thalamic nucleus. Intermingled HCRT-containing and DbetaH-containing fibers extended from the hypothalamus into areas within the medial and central amygdala, terminating at the medial border of the lateral subdivision of the central nucleus of the amygdala. Dense overlap between the two fiber types was also observed in the periaqueductal gray, particularly in the vicinity of the dorsal raphe, as well as (to a lesser extent) in the ventral tegmental area, the retrorubral field, and the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus. Hypocretin-containing cell bodies, located in the perifornical and lateral hypothalamus, were embedded within a dense plexus of DbetaH-immunopositive fibers and boutons, with numerous cases of apparent contacts of DbetaH-containing boutons onto HCRT-immunopositive soma and dendrites. HCRT-containing fibers were observed amid the noradrenergic cells of the locus coeruleus, and in the vicinity of the A1, A2, and A5 cell groups. Hence, the projections of these two arousal-related systems, originating in distinctly different parts of the brain, jointly target several forebrain regions and brainstem monoaminergic nuclei involved in regulating core motivational processes.", "publicationTitle": "The Journal of Comparative Neurology", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "Sep 15, 2003", "volume": "464", "issue": "2", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "220-237", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "J. Comp. Neurol", "DOI": "10.1002/cne.10783", "citationKey": "baldoOverlappingDistributionsOrexin2003", "url": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.gate2.inist.fr/pubmed/12898614", "accessDate": "2010-10-27T09:17:04Z", "PMID": "12898614", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "0021-9967", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "NCBI PubMed", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Animals", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Arousal", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Brain", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Brain Chemistry", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Brain Mapping", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Carrier Proteins", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Dopamine beta-Hydroxylase", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Fluorescent Antibody Technique", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Immunohistochemistry", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Male", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Motivation", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Nerve Net", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neuropeptides", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neurotransmitter Agents", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Norepinephrine", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Rats", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Rats, Sprague-Dawley", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Stress, Physiological", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Tissue Distribution", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T09:17:04Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "757E22G5", "version": 4847, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/757E22G5", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/757E22G5", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Harris et al.", "parsedDate": "2005-09-22", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "757E22G5", "version": 4847, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "A role for lateral hypothalamic orexin neurons in reward seeking", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Glenda C", "lastName": "Harris" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Mathieu", "lastName": "Wimmer" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Gary", "lastName": "Aston-Jones" } ], "abstractNote": "The lateral hypothalamus is a brain region historically implicated in reward and motivation, but the identity of the neurotransmitters involved are unknown. The orexins (or hypocretins) are neuropeptides recently identified as neurotransmitters in lateral hypothalamus neurons. Although knockout and transgenic overexpression studies have implicated orexin neurons in arousal and sleep, these cells also project to reward-associated brain regions, including the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area. This indicates a possible role for these neurons in reward function and motivation, consistent with previous studies implicating these neurons in feeding. Here we show that activation of lateral hypothalamus orexin neurons is strongly linked to preferences for cues associated with drug and food reward. In addition, we show that chemical activation of lateral hypothalamus orexin neurons reinstates an extinguished drug-seeking behaviour. This reinstatement effect was completely blocked by prior administration of an orexin A antagonist. Moreover, administration of the orexin A peptide directly into the ventral tegmental area also reinstated drug-seeking. These data reveal a new role for lateral hypothalamus orexin neurons in reward-seeking, drug relapse and addiction.", "publicationTitle": "Nature", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "Sep 22, 2005", "volume": "437", "issue": "7058", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "556-559", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "Nature", "DOI": "10.1038/nature04071", "citationKey": "harrisRoleLateralHypothalamic2005", "url": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.gate2.inist.fr/pubmed/16100511", "accessDate": "2010-10-27T09:15:13Z", "PMID": "16100511", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "1476-4687", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "NCBI PubMed", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Animals", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Cues", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Hypothalamus", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Injections, Intraventricular", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Male", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Morphine", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neurons", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neuropeptides", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-fos", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Rats", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Rats, Sprague-Dawley", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Reward", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Substance-Related Disorders", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T09:15:13Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "U9XGRCJ3", "version": 4847, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/U9XGRCJ3", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/U9XGRCJ3", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Zanutto and Staddon", "parsedDate": "2007-05", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "U9XGRCJ3", "version": 4847, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Bang-bang control of feeding: role of hypothalamic and satiety signals", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "B Silvano", "lastName": "Zanutto" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "John E R", "lastName": "Staddon" } ], "abstractNote": "Rats, people, and many other omnivores eat in meals rather than continuously. We show by experimental test that eating in meals is regulated by a simple bang-bang control system, an idea foreshadowed by Le Magnen and many others, shown by us to account for a wide range of behavioral data, but never explicitly tested or tied to neurophysiological facts. The hypothesis is simply that the tendency to eat rises with time at a rate determined by satiety signals. When these signals fall below a set point, eating begins, in on-off fashion. The delayed sequelae of eating increment the satiety signals, which eventually turn eating off. Thus, under free conditions, the organism eats in bouts separated by noneating activities. We report an experiment with rats to test novel predictions about meal patterns that are not explained by existing homeostatic approaches. Access to food was systematically but unpredictably interrupted just as the animal tried to start a new meal. A simple bang-bang model fits the resulting meal-pattern data well, and its elements can be identified with neurophysiological processes. Hypothalamic inputs can provide the set point for longer-term regulation carried out by a comparator in the hindbrain. Delayed gustatory and gastrointestinal aftereffects of eating act via the nucleus of the solitary tract and other hindbrain regions as neural feedback governing short-term regulation. In this way, the model forges real links between a functioning feedback mechanism, neuro-hormonal data, and both short-term (meals) and long-term (eating-rate regulation) behavioral data.", "publicationTitle": "PLoS Computational Biology", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "May 2007", "volume": "3", "issue": "5", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "e97", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "PLoS Comput. Biol", "DOI": "10.1371/journal.pcbi.0030097", "citationKey": "zanuttoBangbangControlFeeding2007", "url": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.gate2.inist.fr/pubmed/17530919", "accessDate": "2010-10-27T09:13:49Z", "PMID": "17530919", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "1553-7358", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "Bang-bang control of feeding", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "NCBI PubMed", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Animals", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Appetite", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Computer Simulation", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Feedback", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Feeding Behavior", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Hypothalamus", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Models, Biological", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neural Inhibition", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Rats", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Satiety Response", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T09:13:49Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "GND7K9R6", "version": 4847, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/GND7K9R6", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/GND7K9R6", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Sakurai et al.", "parsedDate": "1998-03-06", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "GND7K9R6", "version": 4847, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Orexins and orexin receptors: a family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding behavior", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "T", "lastName": "Sakurai" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "A", "lastName": "Amemiya" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "M", "lastName": "Ishii" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "I", "lastName": "Matsuzaki" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "R M", "lastName": "Chemelli" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "H", "lastName": "Tanaka" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "S C", "lastName": "Williams" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "J A", "lastName": "Richarson" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "G P", "lastName": "Kozlowski" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "S", "lastName": "Wilson" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "J R", "lastName": "Arch" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "R E", "lastName": "Buckingham" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "A C", "lastName": "Haynes" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "S A", "lastName": "Carr" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "R S", "lastName": "Annan" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "D E", "lastName": "McNulty" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "W S", "lastName": "Liu" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "J A", "lastName": "Terrett" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "N A", "lastName": "Elshourbagy" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "D J", "lastName": "Bergsma" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "M", "lastName": "Yanagisawa" } ], "abstractNote": "", "publicationTitle": "Cell", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "Mar 6, 1998", "volume": "92", "issue": "5", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "1 page following 696", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "Cell", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "sakuraiOrexinsOrexinReceptors1998", "url": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.gate2.inist.fr/pubmed/9527442", "accessDate": "2010-10-27T09:19:30Z", "PMID": "9527442", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "0092-8674", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "Orexins and orexin receptors", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "NCBI PubMed", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Carrier Proteins", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neuropeptides", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neurotransmitter Agents", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T09:19:30Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "USCHDRWF", "version": 4847, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/USCHDRWF", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/USCHDRWF", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "DiLeone et al.", "parsedDate": "2003-06-27", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "USCHDRWF", "version": 4847, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Lateral hypothalamic neuropeptides in reward and drug addiction", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Ralph J", "lastName": "DiLeone" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Dan", "lastName": "Georgescu" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Eric J", "lastName": "Nestler" } ], "abstractNote": "The hypothalamus has been long considered important in feeding and other motivated behaviors. The identification of neuropeptides expressed in the hypothalamus has initiated efforts to better elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms involved. The neuropeptides orexin and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) are expressed in the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and have been implicated in regulation of feeding behavior. Neurons expressing these neuropeptides have extensive projections to regions of the brain important for behavioral responses to drugs of abuse, raising the possibility that the pathways may also be important in addiction. Regulation of LH intracellular signaling pathways in response to drugs of abuse supports a role for the LH neuropeptides in addiction.", "publicationTitle": "Life Sciences", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "Jun 27, 2003", "volume": "73", "issue": "6", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "759-768", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "Life Sci", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "dileoneLateralHypothalamicNeuropeptides2003", "url": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.gate2.inist.fr/pubmed/12801597", "accessDate": "2010-10-27T09:16:27Z", "PMID": "12801597", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "0024-3205", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "NCBI PubMed", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Animals", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Carrier Proteins", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Feeding Behavior", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Hypothalamic Hormones", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Hypothalamus, Posterior", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Melanins", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neuropeptides", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Pituitary Hormones", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Reward", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Signal Transduction", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Substance-Related Disorders", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T09:16:27Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "JDF8AGKK", "version": 4847, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/JDF8AGKK", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/JDF8AGKK", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Scammell and Saper", "parsedDate": "2005-10", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "JDF8AGKK", "version": 4847, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Orexin, drugs and motivated behaviors", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Thomas E", "lastName": "Scammell" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Clifford B", "lastName": "Saper" } ], "abstractNote": "", "publicationTitle": "Nature Neuroscience", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "Oct 2005", "volume": "8", "issue": "10", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "1286-1288", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "Nat. Neurosci", "DOI": "10.1038/nn1005-1286", "citationKey": "scammellOrexinDrugsMotivated2005", "url": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.gate2.inist.fr/pubmed/16189534", "accessDate": "2010-10-27T09:14:46Z", "PMID": "16189534", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "1097-6256", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "NCBI PubMed", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Animals", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Brain", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Humans", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Motivation", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neural Pathways", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neurons", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Neuropeptides", "type": 1 }, { "tag": "Substance-Related Disorders", "type": 1 } ], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T09:14:46Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } }, { "key": "7H8N5WP9", "version": 4847, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 14500, "name": "Computational Neuroscience", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/14500/items/7H8N5WP9", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/computational_neuroscience/items/7H8N5WP9", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 192694, "username": "Mahdi Keramati", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/mahdi_keramati", "type": "text/html" } } }, "lastModifiedByUser": { "id": 192034, "username": "payam", "name": "", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/payam", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Stephens and Krebs", "parsedDate": "1986", "numChildren": 1 }, "data": { "key": "7H8N5WP9", "version": 4847, "itemType": "book", "title": "Foraging Theory", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "David W.", "lastName": "Stephens" }, { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "John R.", "lastName": "Krebs" } ], "abstractNote": "", "series": "", "seriesNumber": "", "volume": "", "numberOfVolumes": "", "edition": "1", "date": "1986", "publisher": "Princeton University Press", "place": "NJ", "originalDate": "", "originalPublisher": "", "originalPlace": "", "format": "", "numPages": "", "ISBN": "0-691-08442-4", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "stephensForagingTheory1986", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "Amazon.com", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [], "collections": [ "ER6FGXAJ" ], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2010-10-27T09:09:22Z", "dateModified": "2026-02-17T19:10:29Z" } } ]