\"We conclude by considering how our hybrid theory of co-cultures and counterpublics may provide an important resource for scholars investigating the roles of identity and power as developments in new media alter the discursive landscape in which intercultural exchanges occur. As research continues to explore the multiple dimensions of mediated intercultural communication, our merged theory of co-cultures and counterpublics may aid in the endeavor to provide a nuanced explanation of the profound influences of power differentials and the evolving processes of identity formation.\"
\n\"As Orbe explains, uses of the \"co-culture\" descriptor \"avoid the negative/inferior connotations of past descriptions (e.g., 'subculture'), while also acknowledging the great diversity of influential cultures that simultaneously exist\" (1996, p. 158). Theories that conceptualize nondominant identities in terms of subordinate categories like subcultures, minorities, or marginalized groups run the risk of solidifying the power differentials that privilege certain groups within a society and stigmatize or disempower others\"
\n\"First, co-cultural theory draws on the insights of phenomenology in conceiving of co-cultural members as \"co-researchers\" (Orbe, 1996) engaged in generating research outcomes based on their personal experiences of communication within asymmetrical power structures. A phenomenological orientation allows co-cultural research to empower the voices of co-culture members typically rendered silent within the normative communication systems established by dominant groups (Orbe, 1998).\"
\n\"New media, particularly social networking sites like Facebook, Twitter, and other similar applications, may appear to provide unfettered communication that enhances one-to-one and many-to-many interaction. The critical concepts co-cultural research employs highlight how intercultural new media research must attend to the structuration of power inherent in these technologies. To be seduced by the appearance of open communicative interaction naturalizes the role of power relations in structuring communicative practices. \"
\"In order to be recognized as legitimate, counterpublics must be \"a site of resistance\" (Hauser, 2001, p. 36). The oppositionality of counterpublics derives from a need to be recognized and facilitates \"hearing proscribed voices, expressing proscribed ideas, and entertaining the alternative reality they advance to the existing order\" (Hauser, 2001, p. 36). Out of opposition, counterpublics bring various voices and identities into public view for consideration.\"
\n\"In short, counterpublics \"invent and disseminate alternative vocabularies to express their interests, identities, and needs\" (Asen, 2002, p. 357). The counter status of counterpublics occurs because of a dominant public's communicative acts of exclusion. Conversely, just as communication has the capacity to promote exclusion, so too does it provide counterpublics the possibility of accomplishing inclusive cultural perspectives.\"
\n\"Bridging co-cultures and counterpublics assists scholars interested in intercultural new media research by foregrounding the processes by which everyday private practices become public acts of resistance through virtual connectivity. Co-cultures provide the critical vocabulary that equalizes the discursive naming of intercultural interaction, while counterpublic scholarship illuminates how specific discursive arenas expand and contract as sites of resistance. As discursive arenas expand, new media become an important way communicative interaction is accomplished through diffusion, not singular channels that can be easily controlled. In situations where strict oversight is a concern, the very existence of new media points to the possibilities of discursive expansion that facilitates resistance.\"
\n\"That is, co-cultural inquiry centers around the day-today lived experiences of domination and exclusion, and it interrogates patterns of oppression in order to find the methods by which co-culture members routinely and innovatively address the cultural norms that perpetuate their subordinate status. With its focus on co-cultural strategies for negotiating exclusion and domination privately, co-cultural research highlights the vernacular exchanges individuals engage in through everyday talk and interpersonal interactions.
\nCounterpublic scholarship, on the other hand, defaults in the opposite direction: its emphasis tends to be on the moments where members of nondominant groups publicize their identities, interests, and needs in ways that challenge the norms built on their exclusion and are designed to resonate and circulate through public circles far exceeding one-on-one private communication. Both perspectives emphasize different parts of similar phenomena, and we suggest that the two usefully complement each other in previously unimagined ways that have the potential to provide a fuller account of group expression and formation, as well as group-to-group interaction, especially in the context of mediated intercultural communication.\"
\n\"Setting aside the important concerns about this ongoing digital divide, our return to theories of co-cultures and counterpublics prompts us to consider how the mere existence of discursive space presumably open to all may yet facilitate powerful normative exclusions that privilege some voices over others--even when all voices are ostensibly heard. The traditional concerns of co-culture and counterpublic research remain vital for intercultural new media scholars precisely because they equip future projects with the theoretical tools to identify and unpack such exclusionary communicative norms that create power asymmetries between groups that are realized in the informal acceptance of some speaking styles and rejection of other, non-dominant, ones.\"
\nThis article provides an overview of two theories of culture: co-culture and counter-publics in order to suggest the use of the two in conversation when doing intercultural research in new media. While both theories are closely related, co-cultures are read through the lens of difference, identity, and oppositionality, as negotiated in quotidian communication, whereas counter-publics are understood through the public dissemination of discourse that challenges hegemonic norms. These two different positions are each important and useful on their own, but it is in the conversation between the two that Loehwing and Motter see a particularly powerful lens. As new media provides an unprecedented access to communication strategies and networks for counterpublics and co-cultures to identify themselves, it also presents a new sphere within which norms can continue to hide and silence voices, creating a need/space for co-cultures and counterpublics to form within digital spaces. By considering both the quotidian communication and disseminated discourse of co-cultures and counterpublics, intercultural researchers can gain a more nuanced understanding \"of the profound influences of power differentials and the evolving processes of identity formation\" as it occurs in communities with access to new media communication tools.
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