S. 27
\nDie Methode des lauten Denkens ist jedoch von Kritik nicht verschont geblieben, denn sie ermöglicht lediglich die Nachvollziehung von bewusst verbalisierten Prozessen, wohingegen unbewusste und automatisierte Prozesse nicht erfasst werden können. Neben den unbewussten Prozessen erscheinen u. E. vor allem die laut ausgesprochenen Überlegungen der Versuchspersonen als problematisch, da diese
in der Regel keine theoretischen Begründungen aufweisen.
Stattdessen enthalten die Verbalisierungen der Studierenden spekulative Äußerungen wie z. B. „dieses Wort klingt besser als das andere“, „mein Gefühl sagt mir, dass das so heißen muss …“, „ich glaube, das sagt man nicht so“ usw., was auf die Verwendung translatorischer Strategien hinweist, die sich hauptsächlich an formalen Aspekten des Textes orientieren.
Es sind folglich keine Makrostrategien zu beobachten. Das Hauptproblem bei der Anwendung dieser Methode stellt die fehlende Argumentationsstruktur der thinkingaloud protocols (TAPs) dar. Wird der Prozess nicht durch den Dozenten zielgerichtet gesteuert, können lediglich Daten über die unterlaufenen Fehler oder die adäquaten translatorischen Lösungen aufgenommen werden, und zwar immer aus der Perspektive der mikrostrategischen Entscheidungen heraus (näheres hierzu bei Risku 1998:207). Solche mikrostrategischen Entscheidungen spiegeln darüber hinaus häufig Übersetzungskenntnisse wider, die auf dem präskriptiven und fragmentierten Lernprozess bestimmter obsoleter Vorstellungen über die translatorische Aktivität beruhen (vgl. Hönig 21997).
\nS. 27
\nIntegrierter Unterricht
\nDie strikte mentale Trennung zwischen Theorie und Praxis an den Übersetzerausbildungsstätten zeigt, warum die Verarbeitung durch die Studierenden linear verläuft und diese dazu neigen, sich beim Argumentieren ausschließlich auf die formalen Mikrostrategien zu konzentrieren.
\nS. 30 (Beispiel Werbetext, Gebrauchstext)
\nAlvarez präsentiert einen Übersetzungsauftrag, den sie einer Studentin gegeben hat. Eine spanische Supermarktkette möchte eine deutsche Woche machen und der Auftrag lautet, einen kurzen deutschen Werbetext ins Spanische zu bringen. Im Kommentar zeigt die Studentin, wie sie ihre übersetzerischen Entscheidungen getroffen hat.
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\nDie Ausbildung von TranslatorInnen sollte schließlich auch zum Ziel haben, Fähigkeiten zu vermitteln, die am Arbeitsmarkt be-nötigt werden. Anthony Pym (2004:162) ist ebenfalls dieser Ansicht, wenn er die Ausbildung als „the creation of skills needed in the labour market for translators. As such, it is not to be confused with language learning (some of which inevitably takes place at the same time as translator training), […]“
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Brooks that depicts a language situation that is no doubt familiar
to many readers of this book and probably as old as the history
of human society itself. The heroine is a Mexican single mother
who works as a maid for a prosperous American family. She
speaks no English- but her ten-year-old daughter does. At a
crucial moment, the mother needs to express her thoughts and
strong feelings to her employers, so she enlists her daughter to
act as translator? The girl is linguistically well equipped to perform
the task but has no knowledge of current translation conventions.
Instead of just translating the meanings of what her
mother says, she replicates with gusto her mother's theatrical
body movements, in a time-lapse pas de deux. Speaking perfect
English, she waves her arms, stamps her foot, and raises the
volume of her voice and modulates its pitch to imitate her
mother's performance in Spanish. The sketch makes us laugh
wholeheartedly. Why? Because only an intelligent but ill-educated
child could imagine that's what translation is- for us.
S. 99
\nGerade unvorbereitete Redetexte beinhalten bekanntlich oftmals Termini, Wortschöpfungen, geläufige Abkürzungen oder beibehaltene fremdsprachliche Ausdrücke, über deren Wiedergabe sich der Dolmetscher vielleicht noch nie Gedanken gemacht hat, deren Wortlaut er aber versteht und deren Bedeutung ihm klar ist, wie z. B. bei \"Magnetresononanztomographie\", \"Meilenkonto\", \"THW\" oder \"Convenience Food\". Trotzdem müssen sie situationsadäquat gedolmetscht werden, sodass der Empfänger die richtige Bedeutung versteht und die Termini in seiner Sprache \"funktionieren\", was natürlich für schwer fassbare Begriffe wie für \"einfache Wörter\" gleichermaßen gilt.
\nS. 111
\nDer Dolmetscher muss nach der Relevanz des Designats fragen. [...] Ist das Designat, der von unserem momentanen \"Versagen\" betroffene Item, relevant, dann muss es auf jeden Fall gedolmetscht und die Entsprechungslücke angemessen informativ geschlossen werden. Dann kommen die informationsstarken Verfahren der Dekomposition, der Lehnübersetzung und der Analogieverwendung zum Tragen.
\nS. 100 Typologie - b) Realiencharakter
\nMeist ist jedoch die Realie dem durchschnittlichen ZS-Hörer unbekannt. Diese unbekannte ERscheinung und ihr Abbild können weder in der Wirklichkeit der Hörer-Kultur bestehen, noch als Abbild im Bewusstsein oder als ein sprachliches Kodierungszeichen, eine Benennung, vorhanden sein (wie etwa die \"Halligen\", der \"Oderburch\", der \"Kulturkampf\" im ausgehenden 19. Jh. zwischen dem Vatikan und der damaligen deutschen Regierung). Dann spricht man von der referenziellen Nulläquivalenz deses QS-Zeichens in der Zielsprache. Realienbenennungen können aber auch anders vertreten sein: ein ähnliches Phänomen besteht auch in der Zielkultur [...], eine kodierte Benennung fehlt jedoch in mancher Sprache, zumindest im Zeichenvorrat als System - wohal aud das kodifizierte, durch Verwendung abgeschliffene, bekannte Abbild. Dann spricht man von einer lexikalisch-semantischen Nulläquivalenz. Die stilistisch-pragmatische Nulläquivalenz ergibt sich bei fehlender ZS Bezeichnung mit angemessenem funktionalistischem Potential [...].
\nS. 103 Verfahren zur Überwindung aktueller Entsprechungslücken
\nDie VERSPRACHLICHUNG des Ergebnisses der kognitiven Wandlung, meist weniger vom Bewusstsein kontrolliert, erfolgt durch bekannte translatorische Verfahren wie:
\nAuf den Seiten 105 ff. schreibt Kutz über Strategien zur Kompensation fehlenden Vokabulars. Er gibt auf S. 105 das Beispiel eines Falles, wo der Dolmetscher nicht wusste, wie man Akkreditiv übersetzt. Er argumentiert, dass \"stellvertretende Ersetzungen für den ZS-Empfänger semantisch verträglich und kommunikativ hinreichend\" (107) seien, sofern die auf S. 107 genannten vier Bedingungen \"1. Aktivierungsbedingung, 2. Funktoinalitätsbedingung, 3. Typikalitätsforderung, 4. Feinauflösungsstufenbedingung\" (ebd.) gegeben sind. Er folgert:
\nS. 108
\nDie Übung dieser Fähigkeit zu pars-pro-toto-Ersetzungen kann nur empfohlen werden: Sie macht unser Bewusstsein flexibler und erleichtert uns mehrere Aufgaben. Anfangs handelt es sich um eine passive Arbeit: Die Registrierung der eigentlich überaus breiten Anwendung dieses Verfahrens in Literatur, Poesie, Reden, ja sogar Fachbeiträgen.
Danach sollte man selbst aktiv werden und zunächst an \"trockenem Material\" üben, an bekannten Konzepten, die immerzu anhand der Dreischichtigkeit der Konzepte zu ordnen sind (etwa Aufsatz schreiben, Computer hochfahren, E-Mail abschicken, Auto starten).
Danach kann man dazu übergehen, an schriftlichen Texten zu arbeiten und die Überwindungsfälle gezielt mit diesem Verfahren überwinden. Abschließende Übung kann an mündlichen Beiträgen, eingangs mit Aufzeichnung und mehrfach möglichem Zugriff, am Ende an unvorbereiteten Beiträgen zu bekannten Thematiken stattfinden.
Diese Übungsweise sollte - angepasst - in meine Beschreibung von \"Paraphrase\" mit aufgenommen werden.
\nS. 105 Anatomie eines interessanten Verfahrens: Pars pro toto
\nNehmen wir als Beispiel aus der Dolmetschpraxis folgende Äußerung, die während einer kommerziellen deutsch-spanischen Verhandlung, von dem deutschen Verkäufer gemacht wurde:
\n\"Ach ja, wir erwarten, dass Sie nun also bis zum 30. April das unwiderrufliche Akkreditiv wie vereinbart eröffnen ...\"
\nDas unwiederrufbare Akkreditiv (letra de crédito irrevocable) stellte (merkwürdigerweise, muss man ergänzen) eine aktuelle Entsprechungslücke dar. Die Dolmetschleistung lautete (in deutscher Rückübersetzung):
\n\"Sie werden also, wie wir abgesprochen haben, bis zum 30. April wegen einer gewissen Eröffnung auf die Bank gehen, nicht wahr? [irán a banco para una cierta apertura, ¿verdad?] [Hervorhebung Kutz]
\nKutz argumentiert auf S. 105 ff, dass es im Handel wie in anderen Bereichen \"unentbehrliches, tätigkeitsnotwendiges, prozedurales und prozessuales Wissen\" gebe. Der Ablauf eines Kauf/Verkauf Geschäfts schildert er so:
\nZerlegt man den Geschehenstyp KAUF/VERKAUF in Prädikationen, bekommt man folgendes Skript:
\nS. 108 f. bietet einen schematischen Überblick über andere Überwindungsverfahren und ihre Nutzbarkeit: Damit könnte man die Übungsformen in der Untergruppe Überwindungsverfahren neu gestalten. Eine andere Gruppe sollte Fertigkeiten trainieren.
\nAuf den Seiten 108 ff. führt Kutz aus, was die verschiedenen Überwindungsverfahren zu bewerten sind, mit denen der Dolmetscher sich behelfen kann, wenn ihm eine direkte Übersetzung nicht einfällt. Kutz präsentiert ein übersichtliches Schema, in dem er die verschiedenen Verfahren nach 1) Informationskraft, 2) Verständlichkeit, 3) Transparenz der quellsprachlichen Kultur, 4) Handhabung (Praktikabilität) aus Sicht des Dolmetschers einordnet.
Es folgen: Indirekte Aufnahme, Rekurrenz-Ausnutzung, Analogieverwendung, Implizierung, Dekomposition, Entbildlichung, Umbildlichung, Verbildlichung, Dynamisierung, Vertretung durch eine Teilhandlung, Exemplifizierung, paraphrasische Wiedergabe, anlehnungsfreie Nachbildungen.
S. 112 Zum Kompetenzerwerb
\n[...] Grundsätzlich und permanent soll Wissens- und Wortschatzerweiterung betrieben werden!
\nDas Wissen um die [Überwindungsverfahren bei Entsprechungslücken] anhand selbst erlebter Fälle (Prototypen) wach halten.
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VORBEMERKUNG 10
VORWOR T 11
Kapitel 1 : ZUR GESCHICHTE DES DOLMETSCHENS: EIN LANGER WERDEGANG 15
0 Einführung 15
1 Das Dolmetschen im Altertum und Mittelalter 18
1.1 Das Dolmetschen in Mesopotamien 18
1.2 Das Dolmetschen im alten Ägypten 22
1.3 Das Dolmetschen im antiken Griechenland 27
1.4 Dolmetschen im antiken Rom 29
1.5 Das Dolmetschen im Mittelalter 32
2 Das Dolmetschen in der Frühen Neuzeit und in der Neueren Geschichte 41
3 Der Beruf des Konferenzdolmetschers wird geboren: Das Dolmetschen in der
Neuesten Geschichte 46
Kapitel 2: DAS DOLMETSCHEN HEUTE UND MORGEN ; 53
0 Hinleitung 53
! Überbück: Die Typologie des Dolmetschens in der Gegenwart 54
1.1 Die Zweige des Dolmetschens 55
1.2 Arbeitssprachen, Dolmetschrichtung und Kompetenztransfer 74
1.3 Der Status des Dolmetschers und die Formen der Berufsausübung 77
2 Wo werden Konferenzdolmetscher ausgebildet? 79
3 Der Konferenzdolmetscher und der Dolmetschmarkt 80
3.1 Der Dolmetschmarkt 81
3.2 Der Dolmetschertypus? 82
3.3 „Kann man vom Dolmetschen leben?\" 83
4 Berufsnalic Tätigkeiten von Konferenzdolmetschern 84
5 Berufs verbände der Konferenzdolmetscher 86
6 Ein wichtiger Einblick: Dolmetscherberuf und Familie 91
6.1 Einschlägige Besonderheiten des Dolmetscherberufs 91
7 Ausblick: Tendenzen im Konfercnzdolmetscherberuf. 99
Kapitel 3: DOLMETSCHWISSENSCHAFT: SELBSTVERSTÄNDNIS UND TYPOLOGI E 109
0 Einleitung 109
1 Ursprünge und Werdegang 109
1.1 Die Anfänge: Sprachwissenschaft und Psychologie 110
1.2 Der äußere Rahmen: Die Paradigmenwechsel in der Sprachwissenschaft 114
1.3 Interna: Wege und Wandlungen dolmetschwissenschafllicher Forschungen.... 133
5
2 Auf dem Wege zur Black Box 153
2.1 Eine Anatomie des Untersuchungsgegenstandes 153
2.2 Dolmetschen als Gegenstand interdisziplinärer Forschungen 167
2.3 Intratranslatologisches: 'franslatologie - Übersetzungswissenschaft -Dolmetschwissenschaft 172
Kapitel 4: DAS LEIPZIGE R KOMPETENZMODEL L DES DOLMETSCHENS 189
0 Einleitung 189
1 Entstehung 190
2 Die Grundannahmen des Kompetenzmodells 197
3 Die dolmetschspezifischen Handlungstypen 215
3.1 Zur Konsekutivdolmetschkompetenz: Die konsekutivdolmetschspezifischcn
Handlungstypen 217
3.2 Zur Simultandolmetschkompetenz: Die simultandolmetschspezifischcn
Handlungstypen 219
3.3 Das Dolmetschen vom Blatt 220
4 Zur praktischen Anwendung des Modells in der Konferenzdolmetscherausbildung. 224
5 Diskussion 225
5.1 Nochmals zum Sinn und Zweck 226
5.2 Vorzüge des Kompetenzmodells 227
5.3 Entwicklungsreservendes Kompetenzmodells 229
Kapitel 5: KOGNITIVER STIL : ZUR KOGNITIONSPSYCIIOLOGISCIIEN PRÄDISPOSITION
FÜR PROFESSIONELLES DOLMETSCHEN 233
0 Einleitung 233
1 Hypothese 233
2 Analyse: Moderne Erforschung kognitiver Stile 235
2.1 Etappen und Richtungen 235
2.2 Fazit: Glanz und Elend der kognitiven Stile 240
3 Synthese: Ableitung eines dolmetschspezifischen kognitiven Stils 247
3.1 Übertragung: Umdeutung und Erweiterung 248
3.2 Ergebnis: Ein dolmetschmodusspezifischer kognitiver Stil? 250
3.3 Ausblick 254
Kapitel 6: ANNAHM E EINES DOLMETSCHAUFTRAGES 25!)
0 Einleitung 259
1 Die Annahme des Dolmetschauftrages als Handlungsmatrix 260
2 Umstände und Details 265
3 Zur Auftragsannahme in der Dolmetschpraxis 267
3.1 Freiberufler: Die selbständig tätigen Dolmetscher 268
3.2 Nebenberufler: Die Gelegenheitsdolmetscher 270
3.3 Festangestellte Dolmetscher 272
3.4 Zum Umgang mit fragwürdigen Arbeitsangeboten 273
Kapitel 7: VORBEREITUNG AUF DEN DOLMETSCIIEINSATZ: FORMEN , PROZEDUREN,
ERGEBNISSE 287
0 Einleitung 287
1 Die Formen der Einsatzvorbereitung 287
1.1 Die organisatorische Vorbereitung 289
1.2 Die fachthematische Einsatzvorbereitung 300
1.3 Die sprachliche Vorbereitung 305
1.4 Die translatorische Vorbereitung 306
1.5 Die eigentliche Dolmetschvorbereitung 307
1.6 Die textuelle Vorbereitung 307
1.7 Die kommunikative Vorbereitung 313
1.8 Die psychologische Vorbereitung 313
1.9 Die physiologische Vorbereitung 314
2 Zum Effekt der Vorbereitung: Zustandsformen und Sonderfalle 316
3 Die Vorbereitung auf den Dolmetscheinsatz im Überblick 319
Kapitel 8: DI E KOMMUNIKATIVE DOLMETSCIISITUATION: SITUIERUNGSHANDLUNGEN DES
DOLMETSCHERS 333
0 Einleitung 333
1 Die Dolmetschsituation 338
2 Die kommunikative Dolmetschsituation 339
2.1 Charakterisierung des kommunikativen Vorgriffs 340
2.2 Instrumente des Vorgriffs: Die rezeptionsrelevanten Faktoren der
kommunikativen Dolmetschsituation 348
2.3 Prozcss: Die Entstehung eines Erwartungsschemas 355
2.4 Ergebnis: Das Erwartungsschema 357
3 Aneignung der Situienmgsfähigkeit 361
Kapitel 9: DI E TECHNISCHE DOLMETSCIISITUATION UND IHRE OPTIMIERUNG 365
0 Einleitung 365
1 Funktionen und Formen 365
2 Optimierungen bei Konsekutiveinsätzen 368
2.1 Mit Technik und Publikum 368
2.2 Ohne Technik und ohne Publikum 369
2.3 Multilaterales Dolmetschen ohne Technik 369
3 Optimierungen bei Simultaneinsätzen 370
3.1 Bei Kabineneinsätzen 370
3.2 Bei Flüstereinsätzen 371
3.3 Besondere Fälle und Umstände 372
4 Fazit 373
Kapitel 10: DE R DISKURS : DI E WAHRNEHMUNG DES ORIGINALS 377
0 Einleitung 377
1 Die Superstruktur, ihre Antizipation und Wahrnehmung 378
1.1 Situationstyp und Diskurssorte 378
1.2 Zur Typologie und Prototypie der Dolmetschdiskurse 382
1.3 SuperStrukturen prototypischer Diskurssorten 385
1.4 Erwerb der Befähigung 390
2 Die dolmetschspezifische Qualität des Diskurses - Formen und Grade der
Schwierigkeit des Originals 392
2.1 Das Original im Dolmetschprozess 392
2.2 Zur fachspezifischen Typologie der Dolmetschdiskurse 394
2.3 Zur Diskurs-Qualität aus der Dolmetschersicht: Die Schwierigkeitsgrade 400
Kapitel 11: DE R KOMMUNIKATIVE DOLMETSCIIAUFTRAG 425
0 Einleitung 425
1 Funktion 427
2 Formen 430
3 Umgang mit schwierigen Fällen 434
3.1 Sonderaufträge 434
3.2 Vervollständigung des Dolmetschauftrags 435
3.3 Situationsbasierte kommunikative Dolmetschaufträge 437
3.4 GAU und Default 438
4 Zum Erwerb der Befähigung 440
Kapitel 12: DI E AUSWAH L DER DOLMETSCIISTRATEGIE 445
0 Einleitung 445
1 Die Spielräume für dolmetschstrategische Entscheidungen im Diskurs 454
2 Die Dolmetschstrategien 469
2.1 Die semantisch geleiteten Dolmetschstrategien 470
2.2 Die konzeptgeleitcten Dolmetschstrategien 476
2.3 Die interaktionsgeleiteten Dolmetschstrategien 487
3 Möglichkeiten und Grenzen dolmetschstrategischer Entscheidungen 496
4 Die Wahl der Dolmetschstrategie 499
4.1 Die Auswahl-Faktoren 499
4.2 Zur Tragweite der Dolmetschstrategiewahl 503
5 Zur Dolmetschstrategie im Simultanmodus 503
6 Erwerb der Befähigung zur angemessenen Auswahl der Dolmetschstrategie 509
S. 41: Interpreter c'est d'abord comprendre
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Is Translation Avoidable?
Translation is everywhere-at the United Nations, the European
Union, the World Trade Organization, and many other international
bodies that regulate fundamental aspects of modern
life. Translation is part and parcel of modern business, and there's
hardly a major industry that doesn't use and produce translations
for its own operations. We find translations on the bookshelves
of our homes, on the reading lists for every course in
every discipline taught at college; we find them on processed food
labels and on flat-pack furniture instructions. How could
we do without translation? It seems pointless to wonder what
world we would live in if translation didn't happen all the time
at every level, from bilingual messages on ATM screens to confidential
discussions between heads of state, from the guarantee
slip on a new watch we've just bought to the classics of world
literature.
But we could do without it, all the same. Instead of using
translation, we could learn the languages of all the different communities
we wish to engage with; or we could decide to speak the
same language or else adopt a single common language for communicating
with other communities. But if we balk at adopting
a common tongue and decline to learn the other languages we
need, we could simply ignore people who don't speak the way
we do.
12 Is That a Fish in Your Ear?
These three options seem fairly radical, and it's likely that
none of them figures among the aspirations of the readers of this
book. However, they are not imaginary solutions to the many
paradoxes of intercultural communication. All three paths away
from translation are historically attested. More than that: the
refusal of translation, by one or more of the means described, is
probably closer to the historical norm on this planet than the
culture of translation that seems natural and unavoidable around
the world today. One big truth about translation that is often
kept under wraps is that many societies did just fine by doing
without.
The Indian subcontinent has long been the home of many
different groups speaking a great variety of languages. However,
there is no tradition of translation in India. Until very recently,
nothing was ever translated directly between Urdu, Hindi, Kannada,
Tamil, Marathi, and so on. Yet these communities have
lived cheek by jowl on a crowded continent for centuries. How
did they manage? They learned other languages! Few inhabitants
of the subcontinent have ever been monoglot; citizens of
India have traditionally spoken three, four, or five tongues.1
In the late Middle Ages, the situation was quite similar in
many parts of Europe. Traders and poets, sailors and adventurers
moved overland and around the inland seas picking up and
often mixing more or less distantly related languages as they went,
and only the most thoughtful of them even wondered whether
they were speaking different \"languages\" or just adapting to local
peculiarities. The great explorer Christopher Columbus provides
an unusually well-documented case of the intercomprehensibility
and interchangeability of European tongues in the late Middle
Ages. He wrote notes in the margins of his copy of Pliny in what
we now recognize as an early form of Italian, but he used typically
Portuguese place-names- such as Cuba- to label his discoveries
in the New World. He wrote his official correspondence
in Castilian Spanish but used Latin for the precious journal he
Is Translation Avoidable? 13
kept of his voyages. He made a \"secret\" copy of the journal in
Greek, however, and he also must have known enough Hebrew
to use the astronomical tables of Abraham Zacuto, which allowed
him to predict a lunar eclipse and impress the indigenous
people he encountered in the Caribbean. He must have been familiar
with lingua franca-a \"contact language\" made of simplified
Arabic syntax and a vocabulary taken mostly from Italian
and Spanish, used by Mediterranean sailors and traders from
the Middle Ages to the dawn of the nineteenth century-because
he borrowed a few characteristic words from it when writing in
Castilian and ltalian.2 How many languages did Columbus
know when he sailed the ocean in 1492? As in today's India,
where a degree of intercomprehensibility exists among several of
its languages, the answer would be somewhat arbitrary. It's unlikely
Columbus even conceptualized Italian, Castilian, or Portuguese
as distinct languages, for they did not yet have any grammar
books. He was a learned man in being able to read and write
the three ancient tongues. But beyond that, he was just a Mediterranean
sailor, speaking whatever variety of language that he
needed to do his job.
There are perhaps as many as seven thousand languages
spoken in the world today,3 and no individual could learn them
all. Five to ten languages seem to represent the effective limit in
all cultures, however multilingual they may be. Some obsessive
individuals have clocked up twenty; a few champion linguists,
who spend all their time learning languages, have claimed knowledge
of fifty, or even more. But even these brainiacs master only
a tiny fraction of all the tongues that there are.
Most of the world's languages are spoken by very small
groups, which is the main reason why a great number of them
are near the point of collapse. However, outside the handful of
countries speaking one of the half-dozen \"major\" world languages,
few people on this planet have only one tongue. Within the Russian
Federation, for example, hundreds of languages are spoken14
Is That a Fish in Your Ear?
belonging to the Slavic, Turkic, Caucasian, Altaic, and other
language families. But hardly a member of any of the communities
speaking these very diverse tongues does not also speak
Russian. Similarly, in India, there aren't many people who don't
also have either Hindi or Urdu or Bengali or English or one of
the half-dozen other interlanguages of the subcontinent. To engage
with all but a tiny fraction of people in the world, you definitely
do not need to learn all their first languages. You need
to learn all their vehicular languages-languages learned by
nonnative speakers for the purpose of communicating with native
speakers of a third tongue. There are about eighty languages
used in this way in some part of the world. But because vehicular
languages are also native to some (usually very large) groups,
and because many people speak more than one vehicular language
(of which one mayor may not be native to them), you
do not need to learn all eighty vehicular languages to communicate
with most people on the planet. Knowing just nine of
them-Chinese (with 1.3 billion users), Hindi (800 million), Arabic
(530 million), Spanish (350 million), Russian (278 million),
Urdu (180 million), French (175 million), Japanese (130 million),
and English (somewhere between 800 million and 1.8 billion)would
permit effective everyday conversation, though probably
not detailed negotiation or serious intellectual debate, with at
least 4.5 billion and maybe up to 5.5 billion people, that is to say,
around 90 percent of the world's population. (The startlingly
wide range of estimates of the number of people who \"speak English\"
reflects the difficulty we have in saying what \"speaking
English\" means.) Add Indonesian (250 million), German (185 million),
Turkish (63 million), and Swahili (50 million) to make a
baker's dozen,4 and you have at your feet the entire American
landmass, most of Europe from the Atlantic to the Urals, the
great crescent of Islam from Morocco to Pakistan, a good part
of India, a swath of Africa, and most of the densely populated
IJ' TranJ'lalion Avoidable? 15
parts of East Asia, too. What more could you want?5 Exeunt
translators! Enter the language trainers! The cast would be more
or less identical, so the net loss of jobs worldwide would most
likely be nil.
If thirteen languages seem too hard to handle, why not have
everyone learn the same one? The plan seemed obvious to the
Romans, who made little attempt to learn the languages of the
many peoples they conquered, with the sole but major exception
of the Greeks. Barely a trace of interest has been found among
ancient Romans in learning Etruscan, Umbrian, the Celtic
languages of what is now France and Britain, the Germanic
languages of the tribes on the northeastern borders of the empire,
or the Semitic languages of the Carthage they deleted from
the map and the colonies in the eastern Mediterranean and Black
Sea area. If you got taken over by Rome, you learned Latin and
that was that. The long-term result of the linguistic unification
of the empire was that the written version of the Romans'
language remained the main vehicle of intercultural communication
in Europe for more than a thousand years after the end of
the empire. Imperial blindness to the difference of others did a
huge favor to Europe.6
Linguistic unification of the same order of magnitude has
taken place in the last fifty years in most branches of science.
Many languages have served at different times as vehicles of scientific
advance: Chinese, Sanskrit, Greek, Syriac, Latin, and
Arabic from ancient times to the Middle Ages; then Italian and
French in the European Renaissance and early modern period.
In the eighteenth century, the advances made by Linnaeus in the
description and classification of botanical species, as well as Berzelius's
research in chemistry, made Swedish a language of science,
and for about a hundred years it kept a respected place. English
and French continued to be used for numerous disciplines, but
German burst onto the scene in the nineteenth century with the
16 Is That a Fish in Your Ear?
new chemistry invented by Liebig and others; and Dmitri Mendeleyev,
who created the periodic table of elements, helped to put
Russian among the international languages of science before the
end of the nineteenth century. Between 1900 and 1940, new
scientific research continued to be published, often in intense rivalry,
in Russian, French, German, and English (Swedish having
dropped off the map by then). But the Nazis' abuse of science
between 1933 and 1945 discredited the language they used.
German began to lose its status as a world science language with
the fall of Berlin in 1945- and many leading German scientists
were of course whisked off to America and Britain in short order
and functioned thereafter as English speakers. French entered a
slow decline, and Russian, which expanded in use after the
Second World War and continued to be cultivated for political
reasons during the remaining years of the U.S.S.R., dropped out
of the science scene in 1989. So we are left with English. English
is the language of science worldwide; learned journals published
in Tokyo, Beijing, Moscow, Berlin, and Paris are now either entirely
in English or else carry English translations alongside
foreign-language texts. Academic advancement everywhere is
dependent on publication in English. Indeed, in Israel it is said
that God himself would not get promotion in any science department
at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Why not? Because
he has only one publication- and it was not written in
English. (I do not really believe this story. The fact that the publication
in question has been translated into English and is even
available in paperback would surely overrule the promotion
committee's misgivings.)
Despite this, efforts are being made to allow some languages
to serve once again as local science dialects. A U.S.-governmentsponsored
Web service, for example, WorldWideScience.org,
now offers searches of non-English-language data bases in China,
Russia, France, and some South American countries together
with automatic retranslation of the results into Chinese, French,
Is Translation Avoidable? 17
German, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Spanish, and Russian.
The asymmetry of sources and targets in this new arrangement
ives an interesting map of where science is now done.
The reasons for English having made a clean sweep of the
sciences are not straightforward. Among them we cannot possibly
include the unfortunate but widespread idea that English is
simpler than other languages.
However, you can't explain the history and present state of
the language of science as the direct result of economic and military
might, either. In three instances, languages became science
\\\"ehicles because the work of a single individual made advances
that could not be ignored anywhere else in the world (Liebig for
German, Berzelius for Swedish, Mendeleyev for Russian). One
language lost its role because of the political folly of its users
German). What we seem to have experienced is not a process of
language imposition but of language elimination, in a context
where the scientific community needs a means of global communication
among its members. The survivor language, English, is
not necessarily the best suited to the job; it's just that nothing has
yet happened to knock it out.
One result of the spread of English is that most of the English
now spoken and written in the world comes from people
who do not possess it natively, making \"English speakers\" a mi:
1ority among the users of the language. Much of the English
now written by natural and social scientists whose native language
is other is almost impenetrable to nonspecialist readers
who believe that because they are native English speakers they
should be able to understand whatever is written in English. So
lumsy and \"deviant\" is international scientific English that even
nonnative wits can have fun with it:
Recent observations by Unsofort & Tchetera pointing
out that \"the more you throw tomatoes on Sopranoes,
the more they yell\" and comparative studies dealing with
18 Is That a Fish in Your Ear?
the gasp-reaction (Otis & Pifre, 1964), hiccup (Carpentier
& Fialip, 1964), cat purring (Remmers & Gautier,
1972), HM reflex (Vincent et al., 1976), ventriloquy
(McCulloch et al., 1964), shriek, scream, shrill and other
hysterical reactions (Sturm & Drang, 1973) provoked by
tomato as well as cabbages, apples, cream tarts, shoes,
buts and anvil throwing (Harvar & Mercy, 1973) have
led to the steady assumption of a positive feedback organization
of the YR based upon a semilinear quadristable
multi-switching interdigitation of neuronal sub-networks
functioning en desordre (Beulott et al., 1974).7
Pastiche and parody notwithstanding, international scientific
English serves an important purpose-and it would barely exist
if it did not serve well enough the purposes for which it is used.
It is, in a sense, an escape from translation (even if in many of its
uses it is already translated from the writer's native tongue).
Now, if the natural and social sciences can achieve a world
language, however clumsy it may sound, why should we not wish
all other kinds of human contact and interchange to arrive at the
same degree of linguistic unification? In the middle of the last
century, the critic and reformer I. A. Richards believed with
great passion that China could become part of the concert of
nations only if it adopted an international language, Basic English,
standing for \"British-American-Scientific-InternationalCommercial
English\" (as its name suggests, it consists of a
simplified English grammar and a limited vocabulary suited for
technical and commercial use). Richards devoted much of his
energy in the second half of his life to devising, promoting, teaching,
and propagandizing on behalf of this utopian language of
contact between East and West. He was in a way following in
the footsteps of Lejzer Zamenhof, a Jewish intellectual from Bialystok
(now in Poland), who had also invented a language of
hope, Esperanto, which he believed would rid the world of the
Is Translation Avoidable? 19
muddles and horrors caused by multiple tongues. In the nine:
eenth century, in fact, international languages were invented in
great number, in proportion to the rise of language-based na-
ional independence movements in Europe. All have disappeared
:or practical purposes, except Esperanto, which continues to be
used as a language of culture by perhaps a few hundred thouand
people scattered across the globe- though what they use it
:or most of all is not science or commerce but to translate poetry,
drama, and fiction from vernacular languages for the benefit of
other Esperantists around the world.
Modern Europeans seem to be haunted by a folk memory of
(he role of Latin in the Middle Ages and beyond. But Latin itself
as continued to have a limited use as an international medium
:or the speakers of \"small\" European languages. Antanas Sme:
ona, the last president of Lithuania before it was overrun by
~ oviet and then Nazi armies in 1941, used Latin to make his last
unsuccessful appeal for help from the Allies.8 From the other
-ide of the Baltic Sea, a daily news bulletin in Latin is broadcast
v Web radio from Helsinki even now.
Language unification, if it ever comes, will probably not be
a hieved by Latin, Esperanto, Volapiik, or some yet-to-be-invented
- ontact vehicle\" but by one of the languages that possesses a
. ig head start already. It will probably not be the language with
:he largest number of native speakers (currently, Mandarin
Chinese) but the one with the largest number of nonnative us;:
rs, which is English at the present time. This prospect terrifies
dnd dismays many people, for a whole variety of reasons. But a
world in which all intercultural communication was carried out
~, a single idiom would not diminish the variety of human
:ongues. It would just make native speakers of the international
:nedium less sophisticated users of language than all others,
s'nce they alone would have only one language with which to
~~i nk.
Second or vehicular languages are learned more quickly and
20 Is That a Fish in Your Ear?
also forgotten more easily than native tongues. Over the past
fifty years, English has been acquired to some degree by countless
millions across the continent of Europe and is now the only
common language among speakers of the different native languages
of Belgium, for example, or on the island of Cyprus.
Russian, on the other hand, which was understood and used by
the educated class across the entire sphere of influence of the
U.S.S.R., from the Baltic to the Balkans and from Berlin to Outer
Mongolia until 1989, has been forgotten very fast and, even when
not forgotten entirely, is now usually left to one side for contact
with foreigners. If language unification does proceed further in
the twenty-first century, its course will be mapped not by the
qualities or nature of the unifying language or of the languages it
displaces; it will hang on the future course of world history.
Beyond multilingualism and language unification, the third
path that leads away from translation is to stop fussing about
what other cultures have to say and to stick to one's own. Isolation
has been the dream of many societies, and some have come
close to achieving it. During the Edo period (1603- 1868), Japan
restricted contact with foreigners to a handful of adventurous
Dutch, who were allowed to maintain a trading station on an
island in Nagasaki harbor, and the Chinese. In Europe, Britain
often seemed to wallow in \"splendid isolation\"- The Times of
October 22, 1957, famously ran the headline FOG IN CHANNEL,
CONTINENT CUT OFF-but that was more pose than reality.
Not so in the tiny land of Albania. Enver Hoxha, the country's
Communist ruler from 1944 to 1985, first broke off relations
with his nearest neighbor, Yugoslavia, in 1948, then with the Soviet
Union in 1960, and then with Mao's China in 1976. Albania
remained committed to total isolation for many years thereafter,
and at one point in the early 1980s there were no more than
a dozen foreigners (including diplomatic staff) in the whole
country.9 Televisions were tuned so as to disable the reception of
I.r Translation Avoidable? 21
_roadcasts from outside the state; only those books that con::
rmed Albania's own view of its position in the world were
:ranslated (and there were not many of those); no foreign books
were imported; commercial exchanges were as limited as cul_
ral and linguistic contacts; and no foreign debts were con-
racted. On the very doorstep of Europe, just a short hop from
: e tourist sites of Corfu and the swankier resorts of the Italian
_-\\driatic, Albania's half century of voluntary isolation shows that
:elatively large groups of people are sometimes prepared to forgo
all the supposed benefits of intercultural exchange.
The dream of isolation comes in many forms, but its recur:
ent shadow falls over the many stories that anthropologists have
:old us about preliterate societies living in remote parts of the
world. Barely pastiching scientific work of this kind, Georges
Perec uses chapter 25 of Life A User's Manual to narrate the life
o Marcel Appenzzell, a fictional pupil of the real Marcel Mauss,
-.vho set off to the jungle of Sumatra to establish contact with the
_-\\nadalams. After a debilitating journey through tropical forest
S, Appenzzell finally encounters the tribe. They say nothing.
:-le leaves out what he believes to be traditional gifts and falls
2:s1eep. When he awakes, the Anadalams have disappeared. They
, ave left his gifts, upended their huts, and walked away. He tracks
:hem through the jungle, catches up with them, and repeats his
:, rocedure, believing it to be the right way to establish communi.:
arion with these \"precontact\" people. But the result is the same.
- hey leave. And so it goes on, week after terrible week, until the
:: hnographer grasps that the Anadalams do not want to engage
__ communication with him, or with anybody else. That is in;
ieed their privilege. A people may choose autarchy in place of
.:ontact. Who are we to say that is wrong?
However, in Perec's telling of this story, the Anadalams ex~
:n plify not only pride and self-sufficiency but also linguistic and
.:ultural entropy. They possess a few metal tools they are no
22 I.r That a &sh in Your Ear?
longer capable of fabricating themselves, suggesting they are
dropouts from a more developed civilization. Their language
also appears to have had a large part of its vocabulary cut away:
One consequence of this ... was that the same word came
to refer to an ever-increasing number of objects. Thus the
Malay word for \"hunting,\" Pekee, meant indifferently to
hunt, to walk, to carry, spear, gazelle, antelope, peccary,
my'am-a type of very hot spice used in meat
dishes-as well as forest, tomorrow, dawn, etc. Similarly,
sinuya, a word which Appenzzell put alongside the Malay
usi, \"banana,\" and nuya, \"coconut,\" meant to eat, meal,
soup, gourd, spatula, plait, evening, house, pot, fire, silex
(the Anadalams made fire by rubbing two flints), fibula,
comb, hair, hoja' (a hair-dye made from coconut milk
mixed with various soils and plants), etc.
The reader can of course jump straight from this description of
lexical entropy to the almost moral conviction that isolation is
bad, for it leads (as the story shows) to the impoverishment and
death of a language and the culture it supports, and ultimately to
the extinction of a whole people. But Perec catches such sentimentality
on the hop:
Of all the characteristics of the Anadalams, these linguistic
habits are the best known, because Appenzzell
described them in detail in a long letter to the Swedish
philologist Hambo Taskerson ... He pointed out in an
aside that these characteristics could perfectly well apply
to a Western carpenter using tools with precise namesgauge,
tonguing plane, moulding plane, jointer, mortise,
jack plane, rabbet, etc.-but asking his apprentice to pass
them to him by saying just \"Gimme the thingummy.\"lo
Is Translation Avoidable? 23
Perec's tight-lipped carpenter may serve as a warning for people
who too loudly lament the loss of language proficiency among
(for example) today's teenagers and students. The carpenter's
skill as a carpenter is unaffected by the form of words he uses to
go about his trade, because there is no relationship of cause and
effect between linguistic entropy and cultural riches of most
other kinds. The loss of a vocabulary, or its replacement by a less
refined one, has no generalized impact on what people can do.
lt would similarly be unwise to think that isolation causes
languages to wither and die. Indeed, isolation may be the most
fertile ground for the diversification and enrichment of forms of
speech-the innumerable distinctive jargons created by clannish
teenagers in every culture provide a good example of that.
Indeed, there are many richly rewarding activities we perform
in contact with others, including others who speak different
languages, that don't need any words at all.
My father once took a trip to Portugal. On unpacking his
suitcase he realized he had forgotten to bring his bedroom slippers.
He went out, found a shoe shop, selected the footwear he
was lacking, got the assistant to find the right size (39E), paid for
his purchase, checked the change, expressed his thanks and gestured
farewell, and went back to his hotel-all without uttering
a word in any language. Every user of a human language must
have had or been close to having a language-free intercultural
communication of a similar kind. We do use language to communicate,
and the language that we use certainly has some bearing
on what, with whom, and how we communicate. But that's
only part of the picture. It would be as artificial to limit our
grasp of communication to written or even spoken language as it
would be to restrict a study of human nutrition to the menus of
restaurants in the Michelin Guide.
The paper applies cognitive theories of text and language processing, and in particular relevance theory, to the analysis of notes in consecutive interpreting. In contrast to the pre-cognitive view, in which note-taking is seen mainly as a memory-supporting technique, the process of note-taking is described as the reception and production of a notation text. Adding the relevance-theoretical constructs of explicature and implicature to the general account of cognitive text processing as coherence building and the construction of a mental representation at local and global levels, this approach allows for the comparison of source, notation and target texts with respect to the underlying propositional representation, and shows how the sense of highly fragmentary notation texts is recovered in consecutive interpreting. The paper is based on an empirical study involving consecutive interpretations (English-German) by five trainee interpreters. The analysis shows that the interpreters operate relatively closely along micropropositional lines when processing the source, notation and target texts, with the explicature regularly having the same propositional form as the corresponding proposition in the source text.
", "tags": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z", "dateModified": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z" } }, { "key": "2G9W6DFG", "version": 3219, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 10558, "name": "Dolmetschen", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/10558/items/2G9W6DFG", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen/items/2G9W6DFG", "type": "text/html" }, "up": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/10558/items/DGX3F39B", "type": "application/json" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 119038, "username": "Odendahl", "name": "Wolfgang Odendahl", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/odendahl", "type": "text/html" } } }, "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "2G9W6DFG", "version": 3219, "parentItem": "DGX3F39B", "itemType": "note", "note": "Im Zuge der Lehrveranstaltung „Basiskompetenz Dolmetschen― («1.2.2.2) am Zentrum
für Translationswissenschaft (ZTW) an der Universität Wien, die in der Regel zu
Beginn eines Semesters stattfindet, wurden den Studierenden zwei verschiedene
Fragebögen ausgehändigt. Basiskompetenz Dolmetschen ist Bestandteil des
Masterstudiums Dolmetschen, muss aber sowohl von Studierenden des Masterstudiums
Dolmetschen als auch von jenen des Masterstudiums Übersetzen (im Rahmen der
Modulgruppe Kombinationsfächer) absolviert werden. Die Lehrveranstaltung zielt
darauf ab, den Studierenden einen Überblick über sämtliche Dolmetschmodi, darunter
auch das Simultandolmetschen in Form von Dolmetschübungen im Sprachenpaar näher
zu bringen. Dabei wird darauf geachtet, dass die Studierenden in ihre Muttersprache
dolmetschen (Stand Sommersemester 2008 und Wintersemester 2008/20091; vgl.
Universität Wien 2011c).
Fragebogen 1
Die Lehrveranstaltung war zur Zeit der Befragung eine Blocklehrveranstaltung und
dauerte insgesamt drei ganze Tage. Am ersten Tag wurden den Studierenden Techniken
des Konsekutivdolmetschens erklärt. Nachdem der ganze Tag zum Üben des
Konsekutivdolmetschens genutzt wurde, bekamen die Studierenden am Ende des Tages
Fragebogen 1 (FB1) ausgehändigt. In FB1 wurden im allgemeinen Teil persönliche
Angaben wie Alter, Studienzweig, inskribierte Sprachkombination und
Kabinenerfahrung erfragt. Im konkreten Fragenteil wurden die Studierenden
aufgefordert anzugeben, wie sehr die darauf folgenden Aussagen auf sie zutrafen oder
nicht. Dieser Teil bestand aus 10 Fragen, die gänzlich aus den Inhalten der Studie von
Jiménez & Pinazo (2001) stammen. Hierbei wurde gefragt inwieweit die Studierenden
nervös, aufgeregt oder etwa ängstlich waren im Hinblick auf ihren ersten
Dolmetscheinsatz, wobei sich einige Fragen auch auf allgemeine Selbsteinschätzungen
beziehen (vgl. FB1 im Anhang).
Für die Fragen in FB1 gab es vier verschiedene Antwortmöglichkeiten: trifft
ganz zu, trifft eher zu, trifft eher nicht zu und trifft gar nicht zu, die anhand kleiner
Kästchen anzukreuzen waren. Im Hinblick auf die spätere Analyse im Statistikprogram
PASW wurde für die Datenerhebung eine Ordinalskala verwendet, die später für die
Ermittlung der Häufigkeiten in Form von Prozentwerten und im Sinne der Deskriptiven
Statistik eingesetzt wurde.
Da die Studie auf anonymer Basis durchgeführt wurde, waren die Studierenden
aufgefordert, am Ende des Fragebogens eine beliebige Buchstaben- oder
Zahlenkombination zu vermerken, die sie sich leicht bis zum nächsten Tag merken
konnten, sodass es am Ende möglich war die beiden Fragebögen einander zuzuordnen.
Zur Veranschaulichung des Ablaufes des zweiten Unterrichtstages, an dem in
der Regel die Technik des Simultandolmetschens gelehrt wird, soll hier ein konkretes
Bespiel, stellvertretend für alle hier behandelten Lehrveranstaltungen mit dem Titel
„Basiskompetenz Dolmetschen―, der Tagesablauf vom 25. Februar 2009, an dem eine
von insgesamt vier Befragungsdurchgängen durchgeführt wurden, vorgestellt werden.
Tagesablauf Tag 2 (Tag des ersten Simultandolmetscheinsatzes)
Der Unterrichts-Tag startete um 8:30 Uhr mit einer kurzen theoretischen Erläuterung
zum Thema „Gleichzeitigkeit―. Nach etwa 20 Minuten gab es bereits einen praktischen
Einstieg mit der Vorübung Shadowing («2.2.4.2). Freiwillige wurden zur Tafel gebeten,
um gemeinsam mit dem Lehrenden die Übung zu demonstrieren. Zuerst sprach der
Lehrende nach und dann der oder die Studierende. Daraufhin wurden die Studierenden
gebeten, anhand von beliebigen Texten oder Reden zu zweit in der Bank das Shadowing
zu üben. Das darauffolgende Feedback unter den Studierenden ergab, dass die
Hörbedingungen im Lehrsaal problematisch waren, da zu viele Studierende auf einmal
sprachen und die Konzentration darunter litt. Das Nachsprechen wurde aber generell als
durchaus machbar empfunden. Nach weiteren 20 Minuten erfolgte der Übergang zum
Paraphrasieren («2.2.4.3) aus einer Sprache in eine andere Sprache. Die Übung wurde
wie zuvor beschrieben vorgeführt und dann von den Studierenden in der Bank
praktiziert. Das Feedback dieser Runde ergab, dass die Studierenden mit komplexen
Satzkonstruktionen sowie erneut mit dem erhöhten Lärmpegel Schwierigkeiten hatten.
Außerdem merkten die Studierenden an, dass sie bei Schachtelsätzen warten und
überlegen müssten, wie der Satz weitergeht, was vom Lehrenden gleich als Übergang
für die SynCloze-Übung («2.2.4.5) genutzt wurde. Nach einer kurzen Erläuterung der
Aufgabenstellung wurde der SynCloze-Test in drei Durchgängen mit je 7-8
Studierenden in der Dolmetschkabine durchgeführt und die Leistungen abgespeichert.
Nach einer halbstündigen Pause konnten die Studierenden das Paraphrasieren in den
Kabinen üben und die Studierenden, die im Saal auf ihren Einsatz warteten, konnten
ihren KollegInnen über Kopfhörer zuhören und auch selbst üben, obwohl die
Hörbedingungen wiederum schlecht waren aufgrund der ebenfalls übenden
SitznachbarInnen. Als Ausgangstext dienten deutsche Reden, die von den Studierenden
vorgetragen wurden. Die Übung wurde in drei Durchgängen praktiziert. Danach gab es
anhand ausgewählter Aufzeichnungen ausführliches Feedback seitens der Studierenden
und des Lehrenden.
Nach etwa einer Stunde und fünfzehn Minuten wurde erstmals das
Simultandolmetschen anhand einer englischen Ausgangsrede geübt, die von einer
Studierenden vorgetragen wurde. Studierende mit Deutsch als B-Sprache dolmetschten
in ihre Muttersprache (Polnisch, Rumänisch, Italienisch, etc.). Danach folgte wieder
eine ausgiebige Feedback-Runde anhand der eingespielten Aufzeichnungen. Nach einer
Mittagspause von eineinhalb Stunden begann um 14:00 Uhr der zweite Durchgang im
Simultandolmetschen. Wieder wurden verschiedene Reden, diesmal auch auf Deutsch
und Französisch, von den Studierenden und vom Lehrenden vorgetragen und in den
Kabinen aufgezeichnet. Die nicht-englisch sprachigen Reden wurden direkt
übernommen und nicht als Relais verwendet. Nach einer kurzen Pause am Nachmittag
gab es noch einen Simultandolmetsch-Durchgang bis etwa 18:00 Uhr. Dann bekamen
die Studierenden Fragebogen 2 (FB2) ausgehändigt.
Page: 43
\nSince the beginning of interpreting research, sight translation has mostly been considered as a pedagogical exercise and interpreters are rarely trained in this task per se. However, sight translation, consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting are performed under different conditions, and these determine how cognitive resources are managed and what strategies are adopted.
\n\n
Page: 44
\nIn interpreting from an oral message, source segments disappear once they are uttered. In ST, on the other hand, the source text remains visually accessible to the translator.
\n\n
Page: 45
\nHowever, as some of our results might suggest, there seems to be a Memory Effort involved in ST as well, similar to the short-termmemory demands of SI. In both tasks, the Reception and Analysis operations overlap with the Production phase, so the interpreter produces a target-language version of sentence A while reading/listening to sentence B. Author: Odendahl Subject: Highlight Date: 5/3/2014 12:58:12 PM Although in ST the interpreter can control his/her rhythm of perception, smooth delivery is possible only when s/he starts reformulating while still reading Author: Odendahl Subject: Highlight Date: 5/3/2014 12:58:27 PM Moreover, syntactic differences between languages may force the interpreter to store some information in memory until it can be appropriately inserted in the target-language speech.
\n\n
Page: 46
\nST also poses a greater risk of source-language interference, as words and phrases remain before the sight translator’s eyes. Author: Odendahl Subject: Highlight Date: 5/3/2014 1:28:11 PM the depth-of-processing hypothesis (Craik & Lockhart 1972), which suggests that information retention in memory depends on the depth of the analysis required to encode the input.
\n\n
Page: 47
\nChafe and Danielewicz (1987) suggest four main analytical parameters by which oral and written texts clearly differ: lexical variety, sentence construction, level of vocabulary, and involvement and detachment. Author: Odendahl Subject: Highlight Date: 5/3/2014 1:43:32 PM Oral language tends to rely on hypotaxis, because the capacity of listeners’ short-term memory is limited. In contrast, written language favors parataxis, and subordinate clauses are also common. Readers can always go back and read a sentence again. The vocabulary of a written text is generally richer than that of an improvised speech, since writers have time to weigh every word, look up synonyms, and search for elegant constructions. Oral speeches make more use of popular expressions, idioms and neologisms. Finally, the author of an oral speech is likely to be more involved with the audience, because of its presence during the actual creation of the speech. Author: Odendahl Subject: Highlight Date: 5/4/2014 8:21:08 AM Therefore, it is argued here that the main difficulty of ST lies not in thewritten nature of the source text, but in the smooth coordination of the R, M and P Efforts, while struggling against increased visual interference from the source language.
\n\n
Page: 48
\nThe mechanics of perception are somewhat different for audition and vision. Listeners receive a continuous signal over which they have very little control. They are forced to process the signal immediately regardless of whether they are prepared to receive new information or whether they are still processing the immediately preceding signal. Readers, in contrast, receive successive “snapshots” from eye fixations that are under their control (Danks & End 1987:276). Author: Odendahl Subject: Highlight Date: 5/4/2014 8:31:04 AM Readers can manage their rhythm of perception; in other words, they can decide to invest more time in a difficult sentence, or go back and read the paragraph again. Listeners depend on the speaker’s pace; their reception is mono-sequential.
\n\n
Page: 50
\nFirst, in real professional situations interpreters often have some time to quickly read the text prior to sight translating. Author: Odendahl Subject: Highlight Date: 5/4/2014 8:41:47 AM as Gile (1995) points out, one of the main coping tactics in ST is to mark text difficulties before starting the translation, such as segmenting long sentences, identifying main verbs and subjects, etc. For our experiment, the interpreters were not specifically advised to mark up the text, but were given a pen and told that they could, if needed, write or underline elements.
\n\n
Page: 51
\nthere is a striking asymmetry between ST and CI, with a nearly exact reversal of the two categories: meaning failures accounted for 76% in CI and 25% in ST; expression failures comprised 75% in ST and 24% in CI.
\n\n
Page: 52
\nthere is greater linguistic interference fromthe source text in ST.
\n\n
Page: 55
\nIn addition to coordination, ST seems to involve a Memory Effort, which is probably similar to theMEffort in SI and is critical to ensuring coherence and cohesion.
\n\n
Page: 56
\nFurthermore, the greater fixation of words and phrases in memory during reading may explain the high rate of barbarisms and anglicisms. Author: Der Wolli Subject: Highlight Date: 5/5/2014 9:42:25 AM For example, the segment domestic demand appeared in all three texts. Interpreter 2 translated it correctly in SI and CI (i.e. “demanda interna”), but fell victim to the wellknown anglicism “demanda doméstica” in ST. Barbarisms included the use of “inigualdad” (inequality) instead of “desigualdad”, and “similaridades” (similarities) instead of “semejanzas”. These terms were correctly translated in SI and CI. Visual interference thus seems to be stronger than interference from the audio source.
\n\n
Page: 58
\nEntire dates and small integers (2 digits) were almost always interpreted correctly, while ranges of dates and percentages proved troublesome for all interpreters (in more than 50% of the cases they were wrong). Furthermore, we noted a different approach for dealing with numbers between SI and CI. More figures were omitted or expressed by approximation (with “almost”, “nearly”, “a lot of”) in CI than in SI, but more mistakes were made in SI. In other words, interpreters tried to convey the exact figure in SI, whereas in CI they often omitted numbers or gave an approximation.
\n\n
Page: 59 We believe that most omissions and changes in meaning were due to note-taking failures, as interpreters seemed to have trouble understanding their notes or recalling information.
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Diese Arbeit versteht sich als Theorie der Praxis und interdisziplinäre Zusammenschau der Erkenntnisse der Translationswissenschaft und der Sprachund Fremdsprachendidaktik. Die persönlichen Theorien, die die VerfasserIn dieser Arbeit im Zuge ihrer Unterrichtserfahrung entwickelt hat, wurden anhand einer umfangreichen wissenschaftlichen Literatur auf ihre theoretische Fundierung hin überprüft. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wird der Frage nachgespürt, welche Kompetenzen SprachlehrerInnen in einem durch Globalisierung, Migration und technologischen Fortschritt geprägten Umfeld benötigen und welche Methoden sich in der transkulturellen Wissensvermittlung als zielführend erweisen. Im ersten Kapitel werden gesellschaftliche Veränderungsprozesse und ihre Auswirkungen auf die Sprache, den Kultur- und Identitätsbegriff sowie das Berufsbild der TranslatorIn und SprachlehrerIn herausgestellt. Anhand eines modernen, weit gefassten Translationsbegriffs wird aufgezeigt, dass in einer multilingual und multikulturell geprägten Gesellschaft auch im Kontext des Lernens ein erhöhter Bedarf an Translation besteht, insbesondere an einem „rewording“ und SprachlehrerInnen in Unterrichtssituationen häufig als TranslatorInnen agieren. Dies betrifft ganz besonders die Wissensvermittlung in fachsprachlich ausgerichteten Kursen und Ausbildungszweigen. Ein beträchtlicher Teil der Arbeit widmet sich dem Kompetenzprofil von TranslatorInnen, wobei aufgezeigt wird, dass die translatorische Kompetenz eine Vielzahl an Subkompetenzen und Grunddispositionen umfasst, die erst in ihrem Zusammenspiel ein professionelles Arbeiten ermöglichen und sich das 136 Kompetenzprofil von TranslatorInnen während der letzten beiden Jahrzehnte erheblich verändert hat, wobei der interaktionalen und technischen Kompetenz, der transkulturellen Textkompetenz sowie der Dienstleistungskompetenz besonderes Gewicht zukommt. Weiters wird aufgezeigt, dass die Unterrichtstätigkeit in einem plurilingualen und plurikulturellen Kontext ein weitgehend übereinstimmendes Kompetenzprofil erfordert, wobei wiederum erst die Verbindung aller Einzelkompetenzen zu einem professionellen Handeln in den verschiedensten Unterrichtssituationen befähigt. Die übersetzerische Kompetenz als Methodenwissen lässt sich im Unterricht auf unterschiedlichste Weise nützen, insbesondere auch zum Aufbau einer pragmatischen und diskursiven Kompetenz. In Kapitel III werden die Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Methoden der Translationsdidaktik und der translatorischen Praxis zur kultursensitiven Bedeutungserschließung von Lexemen und Texten aufgezeigt. Besonderes Gewicht wird dabei dem interkulturell ausgerichteten Landes- und Kulturkundeunterricht, der Arbeit mit authentischen Texten und der Paralleltextarbeit sowie der Erschließung fremdkultureller Konzepte durch den Einsatz von Assoziationsfeldern, der Prototypensemantik sowie dem Scenes-ansframes Konzept geschenkt. Im Rahmen dieses Kapitels wird beschrieben, wie durch den Einsatz der genannten Methoden unbekannte Sichtweisen, Denk- und Interpretationsmuster erworben werden und der kulturell und ideologisch geprägte und geschichtlich determinierte Bedeutungsgehalt von Lexemen und Syntagmen erfasst werden kann. Der zweite Teil des dritten Kapitels widmet sich ganz dem Vergleich als wissenschaftliche Methode zur Erkenntnisgenerierung, wobei sowohl im Rahmen der Länder- und Kulturvergleiche als auch der kontrastiven sprach- und translationswissenschaftlichen Analysen insbesondere auf die Vergleichsmethodik eingegangen wird. Anhand dieses Teilkapitels werden auch häufig zitierte Ergebnisse kontrastiver Länderanalysen thematisiert und die Gefahren einer vorschnellen Rezeption methodisch mangelhafter Vergleiche herausgestellt. Zum Abschluss des Kapitels folgt noch eine Beschreibung der Methoden der kontrastiven Semantik, Pragmatik und Textologie sowie eine Bewertung ihrer Bedeutung für den Unterricht.", "thesisType": "Diploma", "university": "Wien", "place": "Wien", "date": "2009", "series": "", "seriesNumber": "", "numPages": "138", "DOI": "", "ISBN": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "Odendahl", "archiveLocation": "PDF", "shortTitle": "", "language": "de", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Dolmetschen und Übersetzen" }, { "tag": "Lehre" }, { "tag": "Sprachlehre" } ], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z", "dateModified": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z" } }, { "key": "WFG839WU", "version": 3219, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 10558, "name": "Dolmetschen", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/10558/items/WFG839WU", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen/items/WFG839WU", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 119038, "username": "Odendahl", "name": "Wolfgang Odendahl", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/odendahl", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Hagemann", "parsedDate": "2009", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "WFG839WU", "version": 3219, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Zur Evaluierung kreativer Übersetzungsleistungen", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Susanne", "lastName": "Hagemann" } ], "abstractNote": "", "publicationTitle": "Lebende Sprachen", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "2009", "volume": "52", "issue": "3", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "102-109", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "Odendahl", "archiveLocation": "PDF", "shortTitle": "", "language": "", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Evaluation" }, { "tag": "Evaluation Criteria" }, { "tag": "Lehre" }, { "tag": "Übersetzen" } ], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z", "dateModified": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z" } }, { "key": "K74WKJS8", "version": 3219, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 10558, "name": "Dolmetschen", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/10558/items/K74WKJS8", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen/items/K74WKJS8", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 119038, "username": "Odendahl", "name": "Wolfgang Odendahl", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/odendahl", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "He", "parsedDate": "2001", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "K74WKJS8", "version": 3219, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Daxue kouyi kecheng biji de xuexi yu jiaofa tantao 大學口譯課程筆記的學習與教法探討 [Noteaking in Basic Interpretation Class-An Initial Investigation]", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Huiling 何慧玲", "lastName": "He" } ], "abstractNote": "本文首先提出大學部基礎口譯的課程標準，再分別分析學生中到英、英到中的逐步口譯筆記，了解學生遭遇的困難，並且比較筆記的完整、正確與隨後的逐步口譯表現。結果顯示，中到英和英到中的筆記相當不同。此外，筆記雖然對逐步口譯有幫助，有少數情形兩者的表現並不完全吻合，且初學者仍然過度依賴筆記。文末討論各項結果衍生出來的教學與研究的議題。\nIn this paper, the author first lists the course objectives for basic interpretation course at undergraduate level. Then the problems Chinese students encountered in learning note taking for consecutive interpretation (CI) between English and Chinese are analyzed. It is found that they need to solve different problems when English is the source language and when English is the target language. Furthermore, a comparison between notes and subsequent CI performance, via a rough ranking system, shows that beginners often rely too heavily on notes, and that good notes sometimes do not yield good CI performance. Finally, relevant pedagogical and research issues are discussed.", "publicationTitle": "翻譯學研究集刊", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "2001", "volume": "6", "issue": "", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "53-77", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "zh-tw", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Konsekutivdolmetschen" }, { "tag": "Lehre" }, { "tag": "Notizentechnik" } ], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z", "dateModified": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z" } }, { "key": "RCGHJNG3", "version": 3219, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 10558, "name": "Dolmetschen", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/10558/items/RCGHJNG3", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen/items/RCGHJNG3", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 119038, "username": "Odendahl", "name": "Wolfgang Odendahl", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/odendahl", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Hendrickx", "parsedDate": "1972", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "RCGHJNG3", "version": 3219, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Language Teaching and Teaching Translation", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Paul V", "lastName": "Hendrickx" } ], "abstractNote": "", "publicationTitle": "Babel: International Journal of Translation", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "1972", "volume": "18", "issue": "1", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "14-20", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "", "language": "en", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Dolmetschen und Übersetzen" }, { "tag": "Lehre" } ], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z", "dateModified": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z" } }, { "key": "A44P88TD", "version": 3219, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 10558, "name": "Dolmetschen", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/10558/items/A44P88TD", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen/items/A44P88TD", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 119038, "username": "Odendahl", "name": "Wolfgang Odendahl", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/odendahl", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Herold", "parsedDate": "2011", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "A44P88TD", "version": 3219, "itemType": "journalArticle", "title": "Ausbildung von \"Universalgenies\"? Zum Kompetenzbegriff und translatorischen Kompetenzmodellen", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Susann", "lastName": "Herold" } ], "abstractNote": "An important element in T&I studies is the problem of teaching translation and interpreting. \nThe following article does not, however, try to answer the question of whether and how we can teach translation to students. T he focal point lies instead on the concept of translation/interpreting competence(s) and the question of whether cultivating all the competences identif ied by T&I studies as essential to translating/interpreting does not in fact entail tr ying to turn students into \nuniversal geniuses. What would this mean for universit y teachers? And can we integrate the competences def ined in T&I studies into a concise model which can be of use in developing realistic teaching methods?", "publicationTitle": "Lebende Sprachen", "publisher": "", "place": "", "date": "2011", "volume": "55", "issue": "2", "section": "", "partNumber": "", "partTitle": "", "pages": "211-242", "series": "", "seriesTitle": "", "seriesText": "", "journalAbbreviation": "", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "PMID": "", "PMCID": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "Odendahl", "archiveLocation": "PDF", "shortTitle": "", "language": "de", "libraryCatalog": "", "callNumber": "", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Dolmetschen und Übersetzen" }, { "tag": "Lehre" } ], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z", "dateModified": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z" } }, { "key": "7BSSNI7S", "version": 3219, "library": { "type": "group", "id": 10558, "name": "Dolmetschen", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen", "type": "text/html" } } }, "links": { "self": { "href": "https://api.zotero.org/groups/10558/items/7BSSNI7S", "type": "application/json" }, "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/groups/dolmetschen/items/7BSSNI7S", "type": "text/html" } }, "meta": { "createdByUser": { "id": 119038, "username": "Odendahl", "name": "Wolfgang Odendahl", "links": { "alternate": { "href": "https://www.zotero.org/odendahl", "type": "text/html" } } }, "creatorSummary": "Kalina", "parsedDate": "1998", "numChildren": 0 }, "data": { "key": "7BSSNI7S", "version": 3219, "itemType": "book", "title": "Strategische Prozesse beim Dolmetschen: theoretische Grundlagen, empirische Fallstudien, didaktische Konsequenzen", "creators": [ { "creatorType": "author", "firstName": "Sylvia", "lastName": "Kalina" } ], "abstractNote": "", "series": "Language in performance", "seriesNumber": "18", "volume": "", "numberOfVolumes": "", "edition": "", "date": "1998", "publisher": "Narr", "place": "Tübingen", "originalDate": "", "originalPublisher": "", "originalPlace": "", "format": "", "numPages": "304", "ISBN": "9783823349419", "DOI": "", "citationKey": "", "url": "", "accessDate": "", "ISSN": "", "archive": "", "archiveLocation": "", "shortTitle": "Strategische Prozesse beim Dolmetschen", "language": "de", "libraryCatalog": "NKFUST", "callNumber": "418.02 K14 1998", "rights": "", "extra": "", "tags": [ { "tag": "Didaktik" }, { "tag": "Dolmetschen" } ], "collections": [], "relations": {}, "dateAdded": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z", "dateModified": "2014-05-21T13:42:35Z" } } ]